Negative interpretation bias as a mechanism of the relationship between rejection sensitivity and depressive symptoms

Rejection sensitivity and negative cognitive biases have been identified as important risk factors for depression. Rejection sensitivity is defined as the tendency to anxiously anticipate, easily perceive, and overreact to rejection. Although prior studies have found an association between one component of rejection sensitivity, the tendency to anxiously anticipate rejection, and depression, little is known about the mechanisms through which anxious anticipation of rejection might confer depression risk. One possibility is that rejection anticipation leads to negatively biased interpretations, a cognitive risk factor for depression. Results from two studies (one cross-sectional, one longitudinal) indicate that negative interpretation biases mediate the association between the anxious anticipation of rejection and depressive symptoms. These findings indicate that interpretation biases represent a mechanism through which anxious anticipation of rejection confers risk for depression, and suggest that interventions designed to challenge negative interpretations may help to decrease depression risk among individuals who anticipate rejection.     

The semantics of secrecy: young children's classification of secret content

The authors explored whether young children can distinguish potential secrets from nonsecrets by their content, as can older children, adolescents, and adults. Ninety children, 4, 5, and 6 years old, rated the secrecy of items from an adult-validated list of personal information about an age- and gender-appropriate puppet. Two factors of the children's data corresponded to the adult categories of nonsecrets and secrets, and a third factor corresponded to surprises. All ages rated surprises as significantly more secret than nonsecret items; however, the surprise items contained linguistic cues to secrecy. A tendency to rate nonsecrets as secret decreased with age, but only the 6-year-olds rated secrets other than surprises as significantly more secret than nonsecrets. Thus, children acquire the implicit rules defining secret content from a somewhat later age than that reported for the cognitive or behavioral capacities for secrecy.     

The Semantics of Secrecy: Young Children's Classification of Secret Content

The authors explored whether young children can distinguish potential secrets from nonsecrets by their content, as can older children, adolescents, and adults. Ninety children, 4, 5, and 6 years old, rated the secrecy of items from an adult-validated list of personal information about an age- and gender-appropriate puppet. Two factors of the children's data corresponded to the adult categories of nonsecrets and secrets, and a third factor corresponded to surprises. All ages rated surprises as significantly more secret than nonsecret items; however, the surprise items contained linguistic cues to secrecy. A tendency to rate nonsecrets as secret decreased with age, but only the 6-year-olds rated secrets other than surprises as significantly more secret than nonsecrets. Thus, children acquire the implicit rules defining secret content from a somewhat later age than that reported for the cognitive or behavioral capacities for secrecy.     

“I changed and hid my old ways”: How social rejection and social identities shape well‐being among ex‐prisoners

Being a member of a rejected group negatively affects well‐being but can also increase group identification, which can have positive effects on well‐being. However, this rejection‐identification model has never been investigated among the highly stigmatized group of ex‐prisoners. Furthermore, the potential buffering role of multiple group memberships has never been investigated within the rejection‐identification model. We conduct a novel investigation of a combined rejection‐identification and social cure model of group‐based rejection among ex‐prisoners. A survey of 199 ex‐prisoners found that experiencing group‐based rejection was associated with poorer well‐being and increased ex‐prisoner identification. However, identification as an ex‐prisoner magnified, rather than buffered, the relationship between rejection and reduced well‐being. Furthermore, the negative relationship between rejection and well‐being was particularly pronounced among ex‐prisoners with a higher number of group memberships. Ex‐prisoners with a greater number of group memberships experienced greater levels of rejection, suggesting group memberships increase their exposure to rejection. We therefore provide evidence of a boundary condition for the social cure properties of groups. Among members of strongly rejected social groups, multiple group memberships can be a social curse rather than social cure.     

Characteristics of secrets and the frequency,reasons and effects of secrets keeping and disclosure

This longitudinal study examines secrets keeping and disclosure. College students filled in two questionnaires, with a 4 months time span in between. Their psychological and physical wellbeing was investigated, together with self‐esteem, the topic and some characteristics of their most important secret (if they had a secret), reasons for having the secret, to whom they confide the secret, how they felt about confiding, and whether they thought that their behaviour would reveal that they kept a secret when they talked with someone who is not aware of their secret. The findings showed that total secrecy was rare, and that most secret‐holders had informed at least one other person about their secret. Moreover, the findings challenge the view that secrets keeping has negative effects on secret‐holders. Results revealed some negative effects, but only when the secret was serious. No positive effects were found for secrets disclosure. Secret‐holders confided information to those with whom they felt emotionally close; were more reluctant to confide when they kept the secret to avoid disapproval, and more likely to confide when they believed that others would find out about their secrets by paying attention to their (secret‐holders) behaviour. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Autonomy deficits as vulnerability for anxiety: evidence from two laboratory-based studies

Background: Autonomous individuals are characterized by self-governance; awareness of and capacity to realize one’s wishes and needs, while being connected with and sensitive towards others. In line with earlier research showing consistent associations between autonomy-connectedness deficits and anxiety, we tested in two studies whether autonomy deficits predict anxious responses to acute stressors.

Methods: In Study 1, participants (N?=?177) viewed an anxiety-inducing film fragment and reported anxiety before and after viewing the clip. In experimental Study 2, participants (N?=?100) were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: giving a short presentation to an audience (impromptu speech task) or watching another person’s presentation (control condition). Anxiety was measured at baseline, after a preparation period and directly after the presentation.

Results: In Study 1, individuals’ anxiety in reaction to watching the movie was positively associated with the autonomy-connectedness component sensitivity to others. In Study 2, individuals’ anxiety in reaction to preparing the presentation was negatively associated with the autonomy-connectedness component self-awareness.

Conclusions: Specific autonomy components may be related to experiencing anxiety in differing situations (i.e., related to others’ distress or presenting one’s personal views). Collectively these results indicate that autonomy-connectedness deficits may form a vulnerability factor for experiencing anxiety.     

个人信息的有意隐藏：藏秘及其后果和应对

藏秘在日常生活中十分常见, 但由于秘密的不公开性, 使得藏秘的研究发展缓慢。近年来学界主要关注藏秘的消极影响(如负担感及自我惩罚等), 而对藏秘的积极影响研究(如社会保护及亲社会谎言等)较少。学者们提出了秘密抑制模型、专注模型、持续性思维模型和共享现实理论等来解释消极影响的机制, 并发现通过吐露秘密、发挥创造性、训练情绪标记和自我意识等途径可以应对藏秘的消极影响。未来研究应对藏秘的概念做出更准确统一的界定, 并寻求更精准特定的测量与操纵方式, 探索藏秘的积极结果及影响机制, 深化藏秘的理论研究, 并推动藏秘研究在不同领域的应用。     

The Impact of Criminal Record Stigma on Quality of Life: A Test of Theoretical Pathways

Across multiple stigmatized groups, research suggests that stigma may negatively impact individual wellbeing. This impact often occurs through a sequential pathway that includes perceiving societal stigma, a diminished and stereotyped self‐concept (i.e., internalized stigma), experiences of discrimination and rejection, and attempts to cope with stigma (e.g., secrecy or withdrawal). While prior research supports individual links within this pathway, no study has evaluated a model representing the relationships between all of these factors in relation to criminal record stigma. This study utilized cross‐sectional data from an online survey of 198 adults to test the pathways through which criminal record‐related stigma impacts individual quality of life. The results indicated that perceived stigma was a significant predictor of discrimination and rejection experiences, secrecy coping strategies, and decreased quality of life. There was also a significant indirect association between perceived stigma and quality of life through secrecy coping. Consistent with recent criminal record stigma research, internalized stigma was low among respondents. These findings point to the importance of reducing criminal record stigma and discrimination, so that individuals with criminal records have more opportunities to enhance their quality of life without having to withdraw from society or keep their record a secret.     

Family Secrecy in Family Therapy Practice: An Explorative Focus Group Study

The aim of this focus group study was to explore the experiences of family therapists working with family secrecy. Our study highlights that family secrets present important and compelling challenges for family therapists. Furthermore, our study reveals that there seem to be some basic strategies family therapists use in dealing with these challenges in therapy sessions. One basic strategy is that family therapists try to guard their position of being a trustworthy therapist for each family member by avoiding becoming stuck in family secrecy. Furthermore, therapists explore ways to guide the family toward the disclosure of the secret in order to alleviate the toxicity of the secrecy. This highlights the importance of the systemic model and how influential this perspective is in family therapy practice. Some participants, however, have in addition a second strategy they sometimes use: talking with the family about secrecy without aiming to disclose the secret. In the discussion section of the article we reflect on the possibility that in the strategic choices family therapists make conceptual issues might be involved. Furthermore, we stress the importance of further research.     

Self-concealers: Do they conceal what we always assumed they do?

The present investigation empirically examined the relation between self-concealment and three secret typologies reported in the literature. For this aim a general population sample of 221 participants completed an online questionnaire that included the Self-concealment Scale (Larson & Chastain, 1990). Respondents also wrote down their most important secret. It was found that SC is positively associated with keeping secrets that concern convictions of personal inadequacy, sorrows, and worries that relate to oneself. In addition, it is concluded that self-concealed information refers in particular to secrets regarding personal inadequacy, sorrow, and worry. Implications for secrecy research are discussed and suggestions for future research are made.     

The secrets that you keep: Secrets and relationship quality

Research indicates that preoccupation with secrets takes a toll on mental health. There is also some evidence to suggest that keeping secrets from one's romantic partner may harm the relationship as it implies a lack of trust that one's partner will be supportive. Two 4-wave longitudinal surveys of 609 adults (34.3% men, 65.4% women; M_age = 36.4) keeping a secret from their romantic partner was used to assess the lagged effect of preoccupation with the secret on subsequent relationship satisfaction, trust, and emotional intimacy as well as the reverse. Cross-lagged panel modeling with random intercepts indicated that whereas individuals in poorer relationships were more preoccupied with their secrets, there was no evidence for cross-lagged effects. The findings suggest that secrecy may be a symptom—not a cause—of a dissatisfying, distrustful and distant relationship.     

The impact of pressured information management on boys' and girls' psychological functioning

This study involving 463 adolescents examined the impact of pressured information management with mothers on boys' and girls' subsequent psychological functioning. This novel concept of pressured information management involved both pressured secrecy and disclosure and was defined as the degree to which adolescents feel they have no choice but to engage in these strategies. While pressured secrecy was especially aversive for girls, yielding associations with both depression and anxiety, it was related to stress only in boys. Pressured disclosure was less detrimental, and in fact, had a positive influence on girls' anxiety over time. Alternate models for these effects were considered but not supported by the data. Together, these findings highlight the importance of considering teens' reasons for engaging in different information management strategies and suggest adolescents who feel they have no choice but to keep secrets or disclose information to mothers may experience psychological consequences that are gender-specific.     

Secrets and Disclosures: How Young Children Handle Secrets

The authors examined the influence of content and verbal cues on young children's understanding of secret information and of its disclosure. Participants were 209 5- and 6-year-old children in an experiment where a puppet, named Zinc, was the protagonist. Children were asked to whom Zinc would disclose a list of pieces of information, some of which are considered secrets. Children could choose between Zinc's friend, a nonfriend, both friend and nonfriend, or nobody. Participants were divided in 2 experiment groups: In the first group a prior verbal cue was given to the participants that some information might be secret, whereas in the second group no prior cue was presented. Results showed that young children, similar to older individuals, differentiated between secrets and nonsecrets partly on the basis of content, and chose to withhold secrets more than nonsecrets or to share secrets more with friends than with nonfriends, following the restrictive self-disclosure pattern. In contrast, young children did not withhold nonsecret information, but they shared it with friends and nonfriends. However, when given verbal cues regarding potential secrecy of the information, young children chose more restrictive disclosure patterns for all types of content.     

儿童拒绝敏感性与自我知觉的关系:一项交叉滞后研究

采用儿童拒绝敏感性问卷与儿童自我知觉量表对596名中小学儿童进行了为期一年的追踪调查,通过交叉滞后回归分析考察儿童拒绝敏感性与多种自我知觉间的预测关系。结果发现：（1）自我知觉的年级差异显著,初中儿童的自我知觉水平较低;（2）在两次测量中,拒绝敏感性与多种自我知觉均呈显著的负相关;（3）控制性别、年级以及自身稳定性之后,第一年的多种自我知觉均可以负向预测第二年的拒绝敏感性,而第一年的拒绝敏感性仅可以负向预测第二年的体貌及一般自我知觉;（4）年级调节了拒绝敏感性与一般和行为自我知觉间的纵向关系,并在小学与初中儿童中表现出不同的模式。研究证实自我知觉是儿童拒绝敏感性形成的重要原因之一,为儿童社会认知及心理健康的相关研究提供新的实证依据。     

儿童拒绝敏感性与自我知觉的关系:一项交叉滞后研究

采用儿童拒绝敏感性问卷与儿童自我知觉量表对596名中小学儿童进行了为期一年的追踪调查,通过交叉滞后回归分析考察儿童拒绝敏感性与多种自我知觉间的预测关系。结果发现：（1）自我知觉的年级差异显著,初中儿童的自我知觉水平较低;（2）在两次测量中,拒绝敏感性与多种自我知觉均呈显著的负相关;（3）控制性别、年级以及自身稳定性之后,第一年的多种自我知觉均可以负向预测第二年的拒绝敏感性,而第一年的拒绝敏感性仅可以负向预测第二年的体貌及一般自我知觉;（4）年级调节了拒绝敏感性与一般和行为自我知觉间的纵向关系,并在小学与初中儿童中表现出不同的模式。研究证实自我知觉是儿童拒绝敏感性形成的重要原因之一,为儿童社会认知及心理健康的相关研究提供新的实证依据。     

大学生社交焦虑对躯体变形障碍的影响：外表拒绝敏感性的中介作用

躯体变形障碍在大学生群体中具有较高的发病率,在其发展过程中,社交焦虑是重要的预测因素;然而两者潜在的中介机制却未得到研究者关注。本研究采用问卷调查法,旨在大学生 (N = 875)中探究外表拒绝敏感性在社交焦虑与躯体变形障碍之间的中介作用。结果发现： (1) 社交焦虑显著正向预测外表拒绝敏感性与躯体变形障碍,且外表拒绝敏感性显著正向预测躯体变形障碍; (2) 外表拒绝敏感性在社交焦虑与躯体变形障碍之间具有显著的部分中介作用。本研究发现,个体的社交焦虑可直接影响躯体变形障碍,也可通过提高外表拒绝敏感性间接影响。     

Attachment‐related differences in secrecy and rumination in romantic relationships

The study examined attachment‐related predispositions and patterns of cognition and emotion that contribute to different secret‐keeping experiences. Participants (n = 380) reported on their secret keeping, rumination, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance via online questionnaires. Results showed that both anxiety and avoidance were positively associated with keeping a secret from a romantic partner, while only avoidance was associated with a greater total number of secrets kept. The association between avoidance and rumination was partially mediated by perceptions of a partner's ownership rights to the secret and guilt for keeping the secret, such that those who were highly avoidant were less likely to perceive a partner's ownership rights. Finally, highly anxious participants reported higher levels of rumination, which were mediated by feelings of guilt for keeping a secret. The study extends research on the link between secrecy and rumination by offering a theoretical account based on attachment for why some people are more likely to ruminate about their secrecy than others.     

Ethnically based rejection sensitivity and academic achievement: The danger of retracting into one's heritage culture

This study examined the relation between ethnically based rejection sensitivity and academic achievement in a sample of 936 immigrant students in Germany and Switzerland. The theory of race‐based rejection sensitivity that originated in North America was extended to immigrant students in Europe. The rough political climate against immigrants in Europe makes it probable that immigrant youth face particular difficulties and are affected by ethnically based rejection sensitivity, at least as much as—or even more than—minority youth in the United States. Using a standardized literacy performance test and multilevel analyses, we found that ethnically based rejection sensitivity was negatively related to academic achievement for immigrant students. This relation was partially mediated by a strong contingency of the students' self‐worth on the heritage culture, as well as by a low number of native German or Swiss majority‐group friends. We interpret these processes as immigrant students' efforts to cope with ethnically based rejection sensitivity by retracting into their heritage culture and avoiding majority‐group contact, which unfortunately, however, at the same time also results in lower academic achievement. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Secrets or No Secrets: Confidentiality in Couple Therapy

This paper discusses secrecy in couple therapy from ethical and clinical perspectives. The author explains what secrets mean in terms of therapy and then moves to what controversies are raised by revealing or withholding secrets. The author reviews and evaluates current approaches to handling secrets in couple therapy regarding the use of informed consent. Additionally, the manner of implementation serves as another variable. In this paper, the author presents several scenarios which are widely used. The article ends with a call for further research on how the change of formats in therapy affects confidentiality.     

Ibsen's truth, family secrets, and family therapy

In certain Ibsen plays a character (would-be family therapist) enters during a crisis revolving around family secrets. Taking two such plays as models, this paper examines family processes and clinical issues surrounding secrets and myths. In Ghosts, Ibsen demonstrates the tragic foreclosure visited upon the Alvings' lives by a generation of secrecy. For contrast, in The Wild Duck the would-be reformer Gregers brings out the truth, to expose and correct consequences of his father's past machinations. The biographical roots of Ibsen's obsession with truth and illusion are explored. Lastly, the notion that Ibsen and early family therapist were reformers is viewed in historical perspective.