When Does Soldier Patriotism or Nationalism Matter? The Role of Transformational Small‐Unit Leaders

Patriotism and nationalism, 2 sets of attitudes often associated with the military, are examined in relation to perceived combat readiness and intention to remain in military service. Transformational leadership served as an intervening variable in these relationships. Survey data obtained from a sample of Army National Guard soldiers (N = 415) were used to examine relationships. Among junior‐ranking enlisted soldiers, both patriotism and nationalism showed significant, positive associations with perceived combat readiness and intention to remain in military service. The structural equation model fit soldiers' nationalistic attitudes best, having a considerable indirect effect through transformational leadership on perceived combat readiness. Implications of nationalistic and patriotic attitudes combined with charismatic leaders to benefit soldier readiness and retention are discussed.     

Child Care Use,Earnings, and Reenlistment Desires of Wives of Enlisted Soldiers in the U. S. Army

The U S . Army manages more than 600 Child Development Centers and about 12,000 Army-licensed Family Care Homes with a daily attendance of more than 80,000 children. This article analyzes use of child care services in relation to Army wives' earnings, their satisfaction with Army life, and their desire for their husbands' reenlistment in the Army. Data for wives (n = 1,007) of enlisted soldiers from a 1987 U.S. Department of the Army Survey of Families were used to estimate a system of four simultaneous equations. These data were comparable with similar data collected in 1992. Results revealed that the first criterion variable of child care use was associated positively with the wives' earnings and negatively with the age of the youngest child. The second criterion variable of wives' earnings was related positively to the use of child care services. The third criterion variable of wives' satisfaction with Army life, however, related negatively to their dissatisfaction with the cost of Army child care services. The fourth criterion variable of the wives' satisfaction with Army life was related positively to their desires for their husbands' reenlistment in the Army. Other studies suggest that a wife's desire for her husband's reenlistment has a great influence on his decision to stay. Therefore, the military policy makers might increase Army wives' satisfaction with Army life by lessening dissatisfaction with the cost of child care services, perhaps by reducing user charges for them.     

The impact of individual trauma symptoms of deployed soldiers on relationship satisfaction.

Research traditionally has focused on the development of individual symptoms in those who experienced trauma directly but has overlooked the interpersonal impact of trauma. The current study reports data from 45 male Army soldiers who recently returned from a military deployment to Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom) or Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) and their female spouses/partners. The results indicated that increased trauma symptoms, particularly sleep problems, dissociation, and severe sexual problems, in the soldiers significantly predicted lower marital/relationship satisfaction for both soldiers and their female partners. The results suggest that individual trauma symptoms negatively impact relationship satisfaction in military couples in which the husband has been exposed to war trauma.     

Meeting the Missions of the 1990s With a Downsized Force: Human Resource Management Lessons From the Deployment of PATRIOT Missile Units to Korea

Since the end of the Cold War, nontraditional military missions have increased substantially, whereas armies, like many other work organizations, are being downsized. In many instances, survivors of downsizing are being called on to do more with less. One example was the unscheduled 1994 deployment of a PATRIOT missile battalion to Korea. This article presents data drawn from surveys of soldiers in the first PATRIOT battalion sent to South Korea and of soldiers in the battalion that replaced them. Although both PATRIOT battalions were quite similar in many respects, the soldiers in the first battalion sent to Korea had been told that they would not be deployed again for 2 years, had less warning of their deployment, and had seen more deployments than the second battalion sent to Korea. In both battalions, the best predictor of morale for younger solders (E4 and below) was family adjustment to Army life; the best predictor of morale for older soldiers (E5 and above) was leadership support for soldiers. However, the data revealed that both junior and senior enlisted soldiers in the first battalion had significantly lower morale and family adjustment ratings than the soldiers sent to replace them. Findings reinforce the importance of communication with the survivors of organizational downsizing and consideration of the needs of their families as their jobs undergo restructuring. They also suggest that, with increased operational tempo, soldiers’ needs may vary by rank; family adjustment issues may be exacerbated forjunior troops, whereas other family issues become more salient for senior enlisted troops.     

Precipitating Circumstances of Suicide among Active Duty U.S. Army Personnel Versus U.S. Civilians, 2005–2010

To help understand suicide among soldiers, we compared suicide events between active duty U.S. Army versus civilian decedents to identify differences and inform military prevention efforts. We linked 141 Army suicide records from 2005 to 2010 to National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) data. We described the decedents’ military background and compared their precipitators of death captured in NVDRS to those of demographically matched civilian suicide decedents. Both groups commonly had mental health and intimate partner precipitating circumstances, but soldier decedents less commonly disclosed suicide intent.     

Minority representation,tokenism, and well-being in army units

Racial and ethnic diversity is increasing in the US Army and women are moving into more combat roles. This puts minority soldiers at risk for being underrepresented in their work units. Tokenism theory predicts that when a work group has less than 15% representation in a social group, the numerically underrepresented minority (i.e., token) members are subject to three disadvantages: higher visibility, informal isolation, and role encapsulation. In the Army, where many companies contain small numbers of women and racial minorities, some soldiers may face additional stressors and constraints. We explored psychosocial, organizational, and health outcomes of all identifiable token women (N = 4,425) and Black soldiers (N = 5,040). Tokens were remarkably similar to non-tokens and majority soldiers on outcomes such as coping skills, adaptability, organizational trust, sleep, substance use, and pain. The intersection of token status in terms of race and gender was not related to any appreciable differences. One potential explanation is the shared Army culture that emphasizes group unity and the importance of the mission above individual characteristics and goals. The Army depends on cohesion, organizational identification, and commitment to the group in order to reduce stress and anxiety, and to maximize combat performance. For soldiers who have internalized this culture, it could be easier to see past individual differences such as gender and race and identify others in the unit as fellow soldiers primarily.     

Health and Well-Being in Highly Cohesive Units of the U.S. Army1

A large civilian literature on the role of social support in health and well-being suggests that military units high in unit cohesion should provide their members both significant protection from physical and mental illness and high levels of job satisfaction. This hypothesis was tested with a questionnaire survey of soldiers in Special Forces “A-teams”, generally viewed as the U.S. Army's most cohesive permanent units. As predicted, A-team soldiers reported greater physical and psychological well-being and greater satisfaction with job and career than did soldiers in conventionally organized units, be they Special Forces, airborne, or mechanized infantry. The best predictors in our battery of demographic, personality, and cohesion measures were ratings of social support from and satisfaction with one's Army unit, and relatively more “internal” scores on the Rotter locus-of-control scale. From these data and extensive participant observation we conclude that unit cohesion provides the soldier considerable protection from the stresses of military life, even in peace, and that it is organizational rather than individual variables that are primarily responsible for the very high levels of cohesion and/or social support in Special Forces A-teams.     

Killing Versus Witnessing Trauma: Implications for the Development of PTSD in Combat Medics

Killing in combat uniquely predicts elevated PTSD symptomatology among military veterans. This study investigated the effects of combat killing in a sample of 345 U.S. Army combat medics who had recently returned from operational deployments to Iraq or Afghanistan. Combat medics provide frontline medical care before, during, and after battles but also fight alongside other soldiers when under attack. Attempting to kill in combat was a significant predictor of PTSD symptomatology even after accounting for passively witnessing trauma in fellow soldiers. Medics may be well prepared to cope with the passive experiencing and witnessing of war-zone trauma, but may benefit from training to cope with the negative consequences of taking actions to kill.     

A force of change: Chris Peterson and the US Army’s Global Assessment Tool

The US Army launched the Global Assessment Tool (GAT) – a 105-item psychometric instrument taken by approximately one million soldiers annually – in October, 2009 in support of a population-wide resilience development initiative known as the Comprehensive Soldier and Family Fitness (CSF2) program. The lead developer of the GAT was Chris Peterson, and his work on this project – along with that of Nansook Park and Colonel Carl Castro – will likely leave an important and indelible mark on not only the Army, but also the field of military psychology. In this paper, we provide more detail on the history and components of the GAT. In addition, we demonstrate the practical utility of the GAT by showing that high-performing soldiers (soldiers who attained Ranger status) have relatively high GAT scores, and that soldiers with behavioral problems generally evidence low GAT scores. We conclude by discussing future directions of GAT methodology and usage in support of research.     

Mental Disorders,Comorbidity, and Pre‐enlistment Suicidal Behavior Among New Soldiers in the U.S. Army: Results from the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS)

We examined the associations between mental disorders and suicidal behavior (ideation, plans, and attempts) among new soldiers using data from the New Soldier Study (NSS) component of the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS; N = 38,507). Most new soldiers with a pre‐enlistment history of suicide attempt reported a prior mental disorder (59.0%). Each disorder examined was associated with increased odds of suicidal behavior (ORs = 2.6–8.6). Only PTSD and disorders characterized by irritability and impulsive/aggressive behavior (i.e., bipolar disorder, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder) predicted unplanned attempts among ideators. Mental disorders are important predictors of pre‐enlistment suicidal behavior among new soldiers and should figure prominently in suicide screening and prevention efforts.     

Personality and the perception of situation structure in a military environment: seeking sensation versus structure as a soldier

In this article, we explore the role of two narrow personality traits, Sensation Seeking and Need for Structure, in soldiers’ situational perception in a military task‐environment. In the first study, we assess the psychometric qualities of the personality inventories, Sensation Seeking Scale‐V and Personal Need for Structure, in an Estonian military sample. In the second study, we explore how these traits are related to soldiers’ perception of complexity (predictability) and potential harms involved (riskiness; defined as situation structure) in two field exercise tasks. We found that both of the explored personality traits are significantly and inversely related with soldiers’ perception of situation structure in a military environment. Implications for personnel selection, training, and performance of military organizations are discussed.     

An Event History Analysis of First-Term Soldier Attrition

The study of attrition has largely focused on identifying demographic or biographic characteristics that predict whether soldiers complete their enlistment term. As a result, much is known about who attrites. Less is known about why soldiers attrite. This research assessed the influence of two psychological factors on U.S. Army soldier attrition: self-reported confidence that one could complete one’s term of service and ambivalence regarding the decision to enlist. The study sample consisted of first-term enlisted soldiers (N = 14,808) who were respondents to Army surveys. Results of fitting three longitudinal models indicated that confidence in being able to complete one’s term of obligation was more predictive of attrition for those reporting greater ambivalence regarding the decision to enlist. This effect was significant throughout a 3-year period. This work adds to our understanding of attrition by highlighting the role of confidence and ambivalence. Implications for strategies to reduce attrition are discussed.     

Nontraditional careers for women: A prototypical example

A nationwide survey of a stratified sample of 461 Army ROTC college cadets and 470 of their non-ROTC schoolmates was conducted in order to investigate sex and racial differences in military-related perceptions and attitudes. This article focuses on survey findings dealing with sex differences in respondents' military socialization, knowledge of ROTC and the Army, attitudes toward ROTC and the Army, and behavioral intentions with respect to a military career. Female cadets had (1) fewer military socializing influences, (2) less accurate knowledge about ROTC and the Army, (3) more favorable attitudes toward ROTC and the Army, and (4) less favorable intentions regarding military service than male cadets. Findings 2, 3, and 4 were also obtained in the noncadet schoolmate group; however, in this group, there were no significant sex differences in military socializing influences. A model based on these findings is developed as a starting point for attempts to account for the higher attrition rates of women in the military.     

Lifetime Suicidal Behaviors and Career Characteristics Among U.S. Army Soldiers: Results from the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS)

The current report presents data on lifetime prevalence of suicide ideation and nonfatal attempts as reported by the large representative sample of U.S. Army soldiers who participated in the Consolidated All‐Army Survey of the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (N  =  29,982). We also examine associations of key Army career characteristics with these outcomes. Prevalence estimates for lifetime suicide ideation are 12.7% among men and 20.1% among women, and for lifetime suicide attempts are 2.5% and 5.1%, respectively. Retrospective age‐of‐onset reports suggest that 53.4%–70% of these outcomes had preenlistment onsets. Results revealed that, for both men and women, being in the Regular Army, compared with being in the National Guard or Army Reserve, and being in an enlisted rank, compared with being an officer, is associated with increased risk of suicidal behaviors and that this elevated risk is present both before and after joining the Army.     

中国军人心理健康状况的横断历史研究：1990~2007

使用1990~2007年18年间的142组数据, 以横断历史研究的元分析方法, 研究了108736位中国军人的心理健康状况随年代的变化趋势。这些数据来自94篇相关研究报告, 这些研究都使用了90项症状自评量表(SCL-90)作为心理健康的测评工具。结果发现：(1)世纪之交的18年间, 中国军人的心理健康越来越好; (2)18年间, 中国军人在“人际敏感”方面变化最大, 而在“躯体化”方面变化最小; (3)18年间, 中国军人在“恐怖”方面最没问题, 而在“强迫症状”和“人际敏感”方面所表现出的问题一直突出; (4)中国独生子女军人(N = 1944)的心理健康状况低于非独生子女军人(N = 2649); (5)中国城市籍军人(N = 7808)的心理健康状况低于农村籍军人(N = 11459); (6)中国高中学历军人(N = 10189)的心理健康状况低于初中(N = 8407)和大学学历(N = 863)的军人。     

Medically Documented Suicide Ideation Among U.S. Army Soldiers

We used administrative data to examine predictors of medically documented suicide ideation (SI) among Regular Army soldiers from 2006 through 2009 (N = 10,466 ideators, 124,959 control person‐months). Enlisted ideators (97.8% of all cases) were more likely than controls to be female, younger, older when entering service, less educated, never or previously deployed, and have a recent mental health diagnosis. Officer ideators were more likely than controls to be female, younger, younger when entering service, never married, and have a recent mental health diagnosis. Risk among enlisted soldiers peaked in the second month of service and declined steadily, whereas risk among officers remained relatively stable over time. Risk of SI is highest among enlisted soldiers early in Army service, females, and those with a recent mental health diagnosis.     

Factors Associated With Physical Aggression Among US Army Soldiers

There are a growing number of studies that have approximated levels of aggression and associated outcomes among combat veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan using brief screening assessments. However, further research to evaluate the relative role of combat exposures and overt physical behaviors is required to further elucidate potential associations between military service, combat deployment, and overt physical aggression. The purpose of the current study was to assess the prevalence of self‐reported physical aggression in a sample of US Army soldiers using an adaptation of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2), and examine factors associated with higher levels of aggression. A population‐based cross‐sectional study was conducted at a single US Army Installation within a sample of active duty US Army soldiers (n = 6,128) from two large units. Anonymous surveys were collected 6 months following deployment to measure overt aggressive behaviors, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, traumatic brain injury, and misuse of alcohol. There were a relatively higher number of minor and severe physical overt aggressive actions reported among soldiers who previously deployed, notably highest among deployed soldiers reporting the highest levels of combat intensity. Soldiers screening positive for the misuse of alcohol were also significantly more likely to report relatively higher levels of physical aggression. This study quantified overt aggressive behaviors and associated factors, showing increasing combat exposures may result in increased physical aggression. Clinicians treating service members returning from combat may consider assessing relative levels of combat. Aggr. Behav. 38:357‐367, 2012. Published 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.?     

Family-Friendly Environments and U.S. Army Soldier Performance and Work Outcomes

This study examined how perceptions of a family-friendly environment relate to physical fitness, efficacy beliefs, and intentions to remain in the military. Survey data and actual performance measures from 230 U.S. Army soldiers were examined. Findings indicated that a perceived family-friendly environment was positively related to intentions to remain in the military upon fulfillment of obligation. Additionally, perceptions of family-friendly environments were positively related to collective efficacy perceptions. These findings provide strong support for the need to create and maintain a strong family-friendly work environment, not only to improve the well-being of employees but also to benefit the organization's retention efforts, obtained from employees being more willing to remain with the organization.     

Soldier Background and Postinvestigative Events Associated With Timing of Suicide Following Deployment of U.S. Army National Guard Soldiers

The present study examined the timing of suicide and its associated soldier background and postinvestigative events among deployed Army National Guard (ARNG) soldiers from calendar years 2007 through 2014. Suicide deaths were nearly equally distributed between soldiers who had been deployed and those who had not. Among those deployed, however, suicides occurred mostly 1 year or more after having returned from deployment. Soldier background and postsuicide investigative events were associated with the timing of suicide. Having more years of military service, more previous deployments, and being married were associated with in-theater suicides. Soldiers younger in age (17–24 years), single, nonprior service, and lower in rank, in addition to having parent-family conflicts, full-time employment problems, and military transition problems were associated with suicides that had occurred 1–120 days and 120–365 days since return from deployment. Soldiers aged (24–29 years), married, and higher in rank, along with more reported problems including past behavioral health conditions, postdeployment behavior health referrals, criminal behaviors, and military performance were associated with suicides that had occurred 1 year or more after return. Findings likely represent time periods of suicide vulnerability for identifiable groups of soldiers, based on soldier background and events surrounding the suicide. Practical and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.     

A study of male and female soldiers' beliefs about the “appropriateness” of various jobs for women in the army

The purpose of this paper is to document the often discussed (e.g., Goldman, 1973) and recently initiated expansion of women's role in the U.S. Army and to present evidence regarding one aspect of soldiers' probable reaction to this expansion — viz., the extent to which soldiers believe certain military jobs are appropriate for women and, in particular, the extent to which these beliefs are related to respondent sex, rank, and expectation of leaving the Army before retirement.