Effects of anger management and goal setting group interventions on state-trait anger and self-efficacy beliefs among high risk adolescents

In this study we evaluated the effects of two psychoeducational groups (anger management and goal setting) on state and trait anger, anger expression, and on self-efficacy beliefs of high risk adolescents enrolled in an alternative high school. Participants (n = 57) were pre- and post-tested using the State Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) with subscales for (a) state anger, (b) trait anger, and (c) anger expression, and on a measure of self-efficacy related to (a) anger management, (b) goal setting, and (c) group behavior and interpersonal communication. We hypothesized that each treatment would favorably impact the self-efficacy items related to it, that participants in both treatment groups would show gains in self-efficacy for general group behavior and communication skills, and that the anger management treatment would decrease state anger and anger expression. Results of a series of Repeated Measures ANOVAS revealed no group effects or group by time interaction effects. Analysis of Cohen's d effect sizes for the treatment groups in comparison with the control condition indicated only small treatment effects for the goal setting group on the STAXI, and small, negative treatment effects for the anger management group on the STAXI and on state anger. Thus, results failed to support the hypotheses with the current data set. Limitations of this study and implications for future research and group practice within schools are discussed. The authors thank Ellen Hawley McWhirter, Greg Sandstrom, and the administration, faculty, and students of the participating “alternative high school” for their help and support.     

High and low trait anger, and the recognition of anger problems

This study compared three groups of people: (a) high trait anger individuals who recognized personal anger problems (HR); (b) high trait anger individuals who did not recognize personal anger problems (HNR); and (c) low trait anger individuals not reporting personal anger problems (LNR). Compared to LNR participants, HR and HNR groups reported more anger-out (i.e., outward negative expression of anger such as arguing with others), anger-in (i.e., anger suppression and harboring grudges), greater desire to use and actual use of physically aggressive anger expression (e.g., pushing or shoving someone), and less anger control-in (i.e., emotionally focused strategies to lower anger such as relaxation) and anger control-out (i.e., behaviorally focused strategies such as being patient with others). HR individuals reported more trait anger (i.e., higher propensity to experience anger) and less anger control-out than the HNR group. Gender did not relate to the recognition of anger problems. Findings were discussed with regard to theory and clinical implications.     

Effects of trait anger and anger expression style on competitive attack responses in a wartime prisoner’s dilemma game

We assessed the role of trait anger and anger expression style on competitive/aggressive decision making and responding. In a 100‐trial iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma (IPD), with instructions to simulate wartime interactions, competition/aggression was defined as “attacking the opponent,” and “waiting for troop reinforcements” was the noncompetitive alternative response. Prior to play, 92 university student players completed the State‐Trait Anger Expression Inventory. They were then paired to play the IPD against partners of similar or dissimilar trait anger levels. At postplay, the State Anger scale was readministered. Results showed significant preplay to postplay increases in state anger, with greater increases shown by high trait anger players. Thus, high trait anger players were especially subject to arousal. Players in the high trait anger group made more competitive/attack responses, and they were more likely to do so when paired with a high trait anger partner. As a result of the high level of competitive/aggressive play, both groups ended with a negative troop count. Trait anger as a general personality temperament was predictive of state anger, competitive/attack responses, and the number of trials before a retaliation was made. The expressive style of anger‐control was also related to manner of play. Trait anger had strong direct and indirect effects through anger control on the number of competitive attack responses. It was concluded that trait anger, especially trait anger/temperament, and anger control difficulties may be toxic personality factors in decision making and competitive behavior. Aggr. Behav. 28:117–125, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Measurement invariance and age-related differences of trait anger across the adult lifespan

The present study examined measurement invariance of trait anger with respect to age. In addition, age-related differences in latent variables (factor variances, factor covariances, and factor means) were investigated. A sample of 1216 participants, divided into six age groups, ranging from under 30 to over 70 years, was tested using the angry temperament and angry reaction scales from the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI; Spielberger, 1988). Results show that strong measurement invariance held across the six age groups. For both angry temperament and angry reaction, factor variances tended to decrease into middle age and then increase again into old age. Factor correlations decreased into old age, implying a differentiation of trait anger. Finally, regarding factor means, older adults showed less anger than younger adults, suggesting higher levels of self-regulation or less exposure to anger-provoking contexts in later life.     

Responsibility for damage and anger]

Anger about frustration or damage was assumed to depend on how much responsibility can be attributed to the perpetrator. This hypothesis was tested experimentally (N = 120). Drawing upon constituents of the action concept (e.g. free will), three everyday situations (e.g. being obstructed while driving) were varied with regard to responsibility. Twenty subjects each were asked to imagine the three situations from one of the six levels of responsibility and to indicate how angry they would feel. In addition to state anger, anger in, anger out, and anger control were assessed. When trait anger was controlled for, state anger as well as anger out increased as a function of the perpetrator's responsibility, whereas anger control decreased. These results were in line with theoretical expectations. They demonstrate that the expression of anger is subject to social norms and depends largely on the situation. This finding complements original assumptions on the trait-like nature of anger in, anger out, and anger control.     

Reliability and validity of measures of anger/hostility in singapore: Cook & Medley Ho Scale, STAXI and Buss-Durkee hostility inventory

As part of a larger research programme concerned with the role of anger/hostility in heart disease in Singapore, three commonly used measures of anger/hostility (Cook & Medley Ho Scale, STAXI, Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory) were examined for reliability and validity in an Asian population. A total of 968 Singaporean Chinese, Malay and Indian respondents completed one or more of these measures together with measures of symptom and illness experience. In addition, blood pressure and heart rate measures were taken for 201 respondents. Overall, the Ho and STAXI measures had reasonably high internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability for the Buss Durkee measure were high for the total score but variable for the component scales. Correlation and regression showed that the Ho and STAXI appeared to be tapping a common core of variance, which can be characterized as trait anger. Correlations of the Ho and STAXI with health measures produced modest but statistically significant correlations for measures of symptom and illness experience and generally low and non-significant correlations for heart rate and blood pressure.     

Relationships between anger, symptoms, and cognitive factors in OCD checkers

The purpose of this study was to examine whether individuals diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) with primary checking compulsions report higher levels of trait anger and anger expression compared with a student control group, and whether trait anger and anger expression are correlated with specific beliefs and interpretations that are common among individuals who compulsively check. A group of individuals with OCD reporting significant checking compulsions (n=33) and a group of undergraduate students (n=143) completed a questionnaire package that included measures of trait anger and anger expression, as well as measures of obsessive-compulsive symptoms and beliefs. The compulsive checking group reported greater trait anger, though not greater anger expression, than the student control group. Furthermore, beliefs concerning perfectionism and intolerance of uncertainty were positively correlated with anger expression and trait anger among compulsive checkers but not among the student control group. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of cognitive-behavioural treatments for and models of compulsive checking in OCD.     

Controlling anger in self-reported sober and alcohol intoxicated states: moderating effects of trait anger and alcohol consumption

Controlling anger in self-reported sober and alcohol intoxicated states: Moderating effects of trait anger and alcohol consumption. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 52, 382-388. Retrospective self-reports about prior sober and alcohol intoxicated states were explored to reveal moderating effects of trait anger and alcohol consumption on anger control. The analyses were based on self-reports of trait anger and alcohol consumption as well as self-reports of the participants' typical levels of anger control in sober and alcohol intoxicated states in a population based sample of Finnish twins and their siblings (N = 4,852). The reported levels of anger control were lower regarding prior alcohol intoxicated states than sober states. A three-way interaction between alcohol consumption, trait anger and anger control was found. Whereas no interaction between alcohol consumption and trait anger was found in the self-reported sober state, there was an interactive effect of trait anger and alcohol consumption on anger control in the intoxicated state, indicating that the difference in anger control between those with high levels of alcohol consumption and those with low levels, was greater at higher levels of trait anger. Women had lower levels of anger control than men, but the relationship between trait anger, alcohol consumption and anger control was similar for both genders. In conclusion, the results showed that those with high levels of trait anger and alcohol consumption showed the lowest levels of anger control in self-reported alcohol intoxicated states, and indicate the importance of separating between anger control when sober and intoxicated since anger control seems to be differently related to at least trait anger and alcohol consumption in these states.     

Trait anger and anger expression style in children's risky decisions

In this study, 104 children completed a task, measuring risk decision-making, and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory for Children and Adolescents. Subjects were also asked to evaluate the degree of danger, benefit, fun and fear perceived for each risky choice. Analyses indicated that (a) risk decision-making was predicted by both trait anger and outward expression of anger; (b) appraisal of danger fully mediated the relationship between trait anger and risk; (c) perceptions of benefit, scare and fun partially mediated the relationship between trait anger and risk; and (d) appraisal of danger partially mediated the relationship between outward expression of anger and risk decision-making. The results provide evidence for a relationship between dispositional anger and risk decision-making during childhood, suggesting a possible explanation of the mechanisms below. In particular, risk decision-making can be viewed as the output of cognitive and emotive processes, linked to dispositional anger that leads children to be amused, optimistic and fearless in potentially risky situations. These findings substantiate the importance of incorporating cognitive and emotive factors in theories that seek to explain the relationship between personality traits and risk decision-making across a broad age range.     

The role of Dependency and Self-Criticism in the relationship between anger and depression

This study explored the role of Dependency and Self-Criticism, two personality dimensions conferring vulnerability for depression, in explaining relationships among anger, anger regulation strategies, and severity of depression in a sample of adults (n = 253) using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Dependency was associated with high levels of trait anger, the turning of anger towards the self, and low levels of anger directed towards others. Self-Criticism was associated with high levels of both state and trait anger, low anger control, and high levels of anger towards the self and others. Moreover, turning anger towards the self mediated the relationship among both Dependency and Self-Criticism and severity of depression. Problems with anger control also mediated the relationship between Self-Criticism and severity of depression. These findings suggest that Self-Criticism may be closely related to angry/hostile features in depression, while dependency may be more closely associated with the turning of anger towards the self. Although this study was cross-sectional and self-reports of anger might be biased by impression management, results suggest that these personality factors should be taken into account in both research on and treatment of anger in depression.     

Dissociative experiences and anger proneness in late adolescent females with different attachment styles

The study examined the relationships among dissociative experiences, anger proneness, and attachment styles in late adolescent females. One hundred sixty-two college students (mean age = 17.5 years) were assessed using the Dissociative Experience Scale (DES), the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI), and the Adult Attachment Questionnaire (AAQ), a self-report tool for assessing attachment styles (avoidant, secure, and ambivalent-resistant) in close relationships of youths and adults. Significant correlations were obtained between DES scores (total and factorial) and STAXI scores (State Anger, Trait Anger, Anger/In, and Anger/Expression), confirming in a nonclinical sample the connection between anger proneness and dissociation described in patients with dissociative disorders. Insecure females, particularly ambivalent ones, scored higher on the DES, supporting van der Kolk's hypothesis of an inverse relationship between secure attachment and dissociative tendency. Moreover, insecurely attached females showed more anger proneness, with some differences between ambivalent and avoidant types. Further research should be conducted to examine these relationships in males, as well as to clarify the role of insecure attachment in anger management and the recourse to dissociation in late adolescence as a protective response to trauma and emotional distress.     

Attentional biases for angry faces: Relationships to trait anger and anxiety

In two experiments selective attention to angry faces was investigated in relation to trait anger and anxiety. A pictorial emotional Stroop task comparing colour-naming latencies for neutral and angry faces was employed. In Experiment 1 using an unmasked task, individuals scoring high on trait anger showed an attentional bias for angry faces. In Experiment 2, unmasked and masked versions of the task were used. Individuals were selected on low and high trait anxiety, but there was no indication of a relation between attentional bias scores and anxiety. When individuals were subsequently reallocated to groups on the basis of trait anger scores, the high anger group showed an attentional bias for angry faces in the unmasked and the masked task. Results are discussed in relation to recent neurobiological findings from our laboratory, as reflecting an evolutionary-evolved, content-specific response to the facial expression of anger.     

The effect of emotion regulation strategies on anger

This study examined the effects of different emotion regulation strategies on the experience and expression of anger. Participants consisted of undergraduate students who endorsed at least a moderate level of state anger. As part of a laboratory experiment, they were instructed to reappraise (n = 24), suppress (n = 24), or accept (n = 25) their anger during a frustrating task. Reappraisal was more effective at reducing anger than attempts to suppress or accept it. Furthermore, participants in the reappraisal condition persisted significantly longer with the frustrating task than those who were instructed to suppress or accept their negative feelings. These findings suggest that reappraisal techniques are more effective than acceptance and suppression techniques for modulating the experience and expression of anger.     

Cognitive-Behavioral and Systematic Desensitization Procedures in Reducing Stress and Anger in Caregivers for the Disabled

Twenty-six highly stressed family and community caregivers for people with a disability completed scales designed to assess perceived stress, state anger, and trait anger. They were randomly divided into three groups. Subjects in one group underwent stress-reduction training in a self-instructional procedure, subjects in the second group underwent stress-reduction training in systematic desensitization, and subjects in the third group were placed in a wait-list condition. Results showed that state anger and trait anger were correlated with perceived stress at pretreatment, and state anger was correlated with perceived stress at posttreatment and follow-up. Subjects in both the self-instructional and systematic desensitization groups showed a reduction in perceived stress. Subjects in the self-instructional training group also showed a decrease in trait anger. The wait-list group showed no significant change in perceived stress and anger.     

The role of anger in generalized anxiety disorder

Little is known about the role of anger in the context of anxiety disorders, particularly with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). The aim of study was to examine the relationship between specific dimensions of anger and GAD. Participants (N?=?381) completed a series of questionnaires, including the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire (GAD-Q-IV; Newman et al., 2002, Behavior Therapy, 33, 215-233), the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI-2; Spielberger 1999, State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2: STAXI-2 professional manual, Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources) and the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ; Buss & Perry 1992, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452-459). The GAD-Q-IV identifies individuals who meet diagnostic criteria for GAD (i.e. GAD analogues) and those who do not (non-GAD). The STAXI-2 includes subscales for trait anger, externalized anger expression, internalized anger expression, externalized anger control and internalized anger control. The AQ includes subscales for physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger and hostility. The GAD-Q-IV significantly correlated with all STAXI-2 and AQ subscales (r's ranging from .10 to .46). Multivariate analyses of variance revealed that GAD analogues significantly differed from non-GAD participants on the combined STAXI-2 subscales (η(2)?=?.098); high levels of trait anger and internalized anger expression contributed the most to GAD group membership. GAD analogue participants also significantly differed from non-GAD participants on the combined AQ subscales (η(2)?=?.156); high levels of anger (affective component of aggression) and hostility contributed the most to GAD group membership. Within the GAD analogue group, the STAXI-2 and AQ subscales significantly predicted GAD symptom severity (R (2)?=?.124 and .198, respectively). Elevated levels of multiple dimensions of anger characterize individuals who meet diagnostic criteria for GAD.     

Self-Reported Anger Among Traumatized Children and Adolescents

This investigation sought to establish if anger is associated with PTSD among children and adolescents or with trauma exposure in the absence of PTSD. The State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) was administered to youth with PTSD (n=24), traumatized youth without PTSD (n=58), and a non-traumatized control group (n=38). In the absence of potentially confounding major comorbid disorders, the PTSD group had significantly higher scores on the STAXI State, Trait, and Angry Temperament scales. Trauma exposure in the absence of PTSD was not associated with higher anger scores.     

Driver anger in France: The relationships between sex,gender roles,trait and state driving anger and appraisals made while driving

This study aimed to further understand the relationships between sex, gender identity, trait and state driving anger and situational appraisals made while driving, and to validate the 33-item Driving Anger Scale (DAS) in a sample of drivers from France. In total, 378 drivers (males = 38%) aged from 18 to 79 years completed a survey containing the 33-item DAS, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and eight questions regarding self-reported state anger and appraisals in relation to a recalled recent anger provoking situation experienced while driving. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the original six-factor structure of the 33-item DAS. Moreover, Structural Equation Modelling of the factors associated with the recalled anger event showed that trait anger influenced state anger through negative appraisal tendencies, and this was influenced by both sex and gender roles. Females and those reporting more masculine traits tended to have higher levels of trait driving anger. Conversely, drivers with feminine traits had low state anger except if they negatively appraised the situation. This new model could be taken into consideration for developing interventions to reduce anger and “road rage” incidents.     

Attention and interpretation processes and trait anger experience,expression, and control

This study explored attention and interpretation biases in processing facial expressions as correlates of theoretically distinct self-reported anger experience, expression, and control. Non-selected undergraduate students (N?=?101) completed cognitive tasks measuring attention bias, interpretation bias, and Spielberger’s State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI-2). Attention bias toward angry faces was associated with higher trait anger and anger expression and with lower anger control-in and anger control-out. The propensity to quickly interpret ambiguous faces as angry was associated with greater anger expression and its subcomponent of anger expression-out and with lower anger control-out. Interactions between attention and interpretation biases did not contribute to the prediction of any anger component suggesting that attention and interpretation biases may function as distinct mechanisms. Theoretical and possible clinical implications are discussed.     

Boredom proneness in anger and aggression: effects of impulsiveness and sensation seeking

The present study was a replication and extension of Rupp and Vodanovich’s (1997) work on the role of boredom proneness in anger expression and aggression. In addition to replicating their primary analyses, impulsiveness and sensation seeking were included to determine the potential impact of these variables on the relationships between boredom proneness and anger and aggression. Two hundred and twenty-four college student volunteers completed measures of boredom proneness, impulsiveness, sensation seeking, anger expression, and aggression. Findings were consistent with Rupp and Vodanovich (1997) but demonstrated more pervasive effects of external boredom proneness on aggression. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses demonstrated that the relationships between external boredom proneness and trait anger, anger expression/control, and aggression persisted even after accounting for impulsiveness and sensation seeking. Boredom due to a lack of external stimulation predicted one’s propensity to experience anger, maladaptive anger expression, aggression, and deficits in anger control.