儿童2岁时的行为抑制性对其7-14岁学校适应的预测

采用实验室观察和教师报告,考察2岁儿童的行为抑制性对其7岁、11岁和14岁时学校适应的预测作用。结果表明儿童2岁时的行为抑制性可以：（1）显著正向预测其7岁时教师报告的任务定向、同伴交往能力;负向预测其7岁时教师报告的攻击和学习问题。（2）显著正向预测男孩11岁时教师报告的受欺受辱和害羞焦虑。（3）显著正向预测其14岁时教师报告的任务定向能力,负向预测其14岁时教师报告的攻击、学习问题和受欺受辱。     

儿童4岁时的自我控制对其7岁及11岁社会适应的预测

采用追踪设计,考察了138名儿童4岁时的自我控制对其7-11岁期间社会适应的影响。分别采用实验室观察法和问卷法测量了儿童的自我控制与社会适应。研究结果表明（1）儿童4岁时的自我控制存在显著的性别差异,其中女孩的自我控制水平显著高于男孩;（2）4岁时的自我控制能够显著负向预测7岁时母亲报告的外显和内隐问题行为,以及父亲报告的外显问题行为;（3）4岁时的自我控制能够显著负向预测7岁时教师评价的学习问题行为;（4）4岁时的自我控制能够显著负向预测11岁时父亲报告的外显问题行为;（5）4岁时的自我控制能够显著正向预测教师报告的挫折耐受能力。     

童年期母亲教养方式与11岁儿童学校适应的关系

通过问卷调查法追踪考察了童年早期到中期母亲教养方式的稳定性和变化,以及童年早中期母亲教养方式对11岁儿童学业成绩和学校适应的预测作用。结果发现儿童从2岁到7岁,母亲教养方式在保护担忧、控制两个维度上出现了显著变化,在其余维度上没有发现显著变化。儿童2岁和7岁时,性别能显著预测其11岁时的学校适应问题。儿童2岁时,母亲鼓励和控制的教养方式能显著预测11岁时儿童的学业成绩及害羞焦虑、挫折耐受性、同伴交往等行为和社交问题。儿童7岁时,母亲保护和控制的教养方式能显著预测儿童11岁时的学业成绩、学习问题及害羞焦虑、挫折耐受性、果敢社交等行为和社交问题。     

学步儿童的不顺从行为与亲子互动的关系

通过对138名学步儿童及其母亲的观察研究,分析儿童的不顺从行为与亲子互动之间的关系。结果表明:(1)在亲子互动中,母亲的言语策略多于身体策略。(2)母亲的模糊言语显著地正向预测儿童的反抗,母亲的远处身体指导显著地正向预测消极不顺从。(3)母亲的反应性与明晰言语、模糊言语、积极身体指导和远处身体指导正相关,与严厉言语和消极身体指导负相关。(4)儿童反应性负向预测消极不顺从和拒绝/协商行为。     

儿童2～7岁行为抑制性发展对7岁时问题行为、学校适应的预测作用

本研究采用陌生实验室的录像观察考察了中国2~7岁儿童行为抑制性的发展,并且采用教师评价量表报告了儿童7岁时的学校适应,采用父母填写儿童行为调查表CBCL来测查儿童7岁时的问题行为,从而考察了儿童2~7岁的行为抑制性对其7岁时的问题行为和学校适应的预测作用。儿童2岁时,共有208名儿童参加了这项追踪研究,4岁时,由于被试拒绝参加、搬家或失约,共有176名儿童参加了实验室的录像观察。7岁时,共有124名儿童参加了实验室实验和学校教师的评价,并且父母对7岁儿童的问题行为进行了报告。同时参加2、4、7岁研究的儿童为66人,其中男孩为28人,女孩38人。协方差结构模型分析表明:儿童2岁时的抑制性水平越高,7岁时的学习问题越少;儿童4岁时的抑制性水平越高,7岁时的攻击行为越少,挫折耐受力、任务定向能力越强,但同时抑郁问题也越多。而7岁时的抑制性可以边缘显著地预测儿童7岁时母亲所报告的退缩问题,即7岁时抑制性水平越高,母亲所报告的退缩问题越多。而且,本研究还发现女孩7岁的抑制性水平越高,任务定向能力和果断的社交技能越差。男孩2岁的抑制水平越高,任务定向能力越强;男孩7岁时抑制水平越高,攻击行为越多。     

儿童4岁到7岁社交退缩行为的适应意义

本研究追踪了149名儿童4岁和7岁的抑制行为、安静退缩及活跃退缩行为,考察三种社交退缩行为与问题行为的关系。社交退缩由观察得到,问题行为分别由母亲和教师报告。结果表明,从4岁到7岁,儿童的三种社交退缩行为明显减少,抑制行为、安静退缩有较低的稳定性,活跃退缩不稳定。在两个年龄段,抑制行为都与内隐问题行为显著正相关。4岁的社交退缩不能预测7岁的问题行为。     

2～11岁儿童问题行为的稳定性与变化

本研究采用追踪研究方法,考察了儿童2岁、4岁、7岁、11岁时内隐问题行为和外显问题行为的稳定性和变化。结果发现,各个年龄阶段,父母报告的问题行为都具有中等程度的相关。儿童的问题行为2岁时最多,此后开始下降,11岁时问题行为最少。儿童的问题行为具有中等程度的连续性,2岁、4岁、7岁、11岁的问题行为之间的相关均非常显著。     

父亲教养态度与儿童在4～7岁间的问题行为和学校适应

对54名儿童在4岁和7岁时的问题行为及其父亲的教养态度进行追踪研究,在儿童7岁时,根据教师报告考察其学校适应情况。结果发现：父亲的过分关心能显著预测男孩的外显和内隐问题行为;父亲的拒绝和控制能显著预测儿童在学校中的助人行为;从4岁到7岁．父亲的教养态度既有稳定性,又有一定的变化;父亲对待男孩和女孩的教养态度差异显著。     

行为抑制性、母亲养育方式和学步儿问题行为的关系

采用实验室观察及问卷法,考察学步儿行为抑制性、母亲养育方式和问题行为的关系。结果发现:(1)行为抑制性正向预测内隐问题行为;母亲拒绝正向预测外显问题行为;母亲保护担忧负向预测外显问题行为。(2)性别能调节母亲养育方式与问题行为之间的关系,母亲鼓励独立负向预测男孩内隐问题行为;母亲拒绝正向预测女孩内隐问题行为;保护担忧负向预测男孩外显问题行为;母亲惩罚正向预测男孩外显问题行为。     

2～11岁儿童自我控制发展的稳定性与变化及其性别差异

采用实验室行为观察法考察了114名2～11岁儿童自我控制的发展变化及其性别差异。结果表明:(1)儿童的自我控制在2岁到4岁之间具有低等程度的相对稳定性,在4～11岁之间具有低等程度的相对稳定性。(2)女孩在2岁、4岁、7岁和11岁时的自我控制均显著高于男孩。(3)从2岁到11岁,男孩和女孩自我控制的发展变化存在差异。对于女孩来说,4岁时的自我控制显著高于2岁时,4岁与7岁、11岁之间以及7岁与11岁之间的自我控制均无显著差异;对于男孩来说,4岁时的自我控制显著高于2岁时,7岁时显著低于4岁,7岁与11岁之间的自我控制无显著差异。     

COMPLIANCE TRAINING AND BEHAVIORAL COVARIATION IN THE TREATMENT OF MULTIPLE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

The present study investigated the use of a compliance-training procedure and its effect on untreated deviant child behaviors. Three children, each generally noncompliant to adult requests and with several additional problems, such as crying, aggression, and self-injurious behavior, were trained in the compliance procedure under a multiple-baséline design across therapists. Compliance was defined as the correct response to prespecified requests. Other classes of deviant child behavior were measured continuously throughout the study but not directly reinforced. The results of the study showed that (a) increases in compliance to requests were directly related to the contingencies employed; (b) decreases in untreated deviant behaviors occurred when compliance increased, even though no direct contingencies had been placed on these behaviors; and (c) the relationship between untreated deviant behaviors and compliance appeared to be maintained by a different set of events in each of the three children. The results are discussed in terms of behavioral covariation and generalization.     

Assessing Parental Response Patterns in the Treatment of Noncompliance in Children

Child noncompliance is one of the most frequently reported behavior problems in clinic-referred children. One difficulty with treating noncompliance in the clinic is that the demand characteristics of the situation may alter the rates of child compliance. The observation of parent-child interactions, with an emphasis on parent behaviors, may be a more meaningful way to assess parent training programs. In the current study, the parents of three children each showed a distinctive pattern in their responding to their children's compliant and noncompliant behaviors. An in vivo direct instruction procedure, that involved the therapist working directly with the parent to provide immediate consequences was used. Following training, improvements in correct responding were evident for al parents. Particularly noteworthy was that child compliance was not an accurate indicator when assessing parents' initial skill levels.     

Increasing Classroom Compliance: Using a High-Probability Command Sequence with Noncompliant Students

Noncompliance is one of the most problematic behaviors within the school setting. One strategy to increase compliance of noncompliant students is a high-probability command sequence (HPCS; i.e., a set of simple commands in which an individual is likely to comply immediately prior to the delivery of a command that has a lower probability of compliance). Although research has shown this technique to be effective at increasing compliance across various settings and behaviors, most studies have been limited to participants with moderate to severe developmental disabilities. The current study targeted 2 noncompliant elementary-age students within the general education setting. Two teachers were taught to integrate HPCS into ongoing classroom reading instruction and independent seatwork. For both participants, higher percentages of compliance with low-probability commands were displayed during intervention and maintenance phases compared to baseline levels. Results suggest that using an antecedent intervention based on HPCS holds promise for school personnel working with noncompliant students within the general education setting.     

The Good Behavior Game

The Good Behavior Game was implemented with four children attending a church-affiliated preschool in efforts to increase concurrent compliance and cooperation. Sessions were conducted individually with each child pair while in free play. The children were given various instructions by “Buddy Bear” (a puppet). Children were praised individually for compliant behavior while noncompliant and inappropriate behaviors were ignored. Further instances in which children complies (i.e., cooperation) were rewarded with tokens make of felt, shaped like happy faced or dinosaurs and placed on a large felt board. If the children earned their criterion levels of tokens, they received animal snacks. Improvements in compliance were noted, with generalization occurring across therapists but not settings. Factors influencing the results and implications of the findings are discussed.     

Praising child compliance: Reinforcement or ritual?

Praising child compliance is a common therapeutic recommendation to parents with noncompliant children. There are currently no studies documenting the independent contribution of the praise component to successful parent training programs. Three projects were designed to evaluate the hypotheses underlying the use of contingent praise routines. Namely, it has been suggested that conduct-disordered children are relatively unresponsive to adult approval at pretreatment, yet become responsive by posttreatment. In contrast to the hypotheses, data indicated that child compliance levels were not associated with child responsivity to maternal social reinforces; noncompliant children were responsive to maternal praise both before and after treatment; child responsivity to maternal praise did not covary with successful treatment; previously noncompliant but successfully treated children continued to comply to maternal instructions after contingent praise was withdrawn; a nonclinic child demonstrated extensive compliance persistence in the absence of contingent praise. Praising child compliance appeared to be more of a polite ritual than an active therapeutic component for altering noncompliance.The author is grateful to the many students who have participated in these projects. Special thanks go to Lynn McIsaac, Lisa Grange, and Dan Anderson for their assistance with Project 3.     

”Beat-the-Buzzer”:

Dawdling and noncompliance with the morning routine can result in frustration and parent-child conflicts. “Beat-the-Buzzer” is a contingency management procedure which has been anecdotally reported useful for decreasing dawdling and noncompliance. However, its effects on family interactions has not been examined. Thus, the focus of the present study was twofold: (1) to experimentally demonstrate the effectiveness of the concomitant effect on the interactions between parent and child. Two studies were conducted: the first was a multiple baseline design across two subjects; the second study was a single-case replication of the first. Both studies followed the same protocol and contained one week of follow-up data taken one month after formal data collection was completed. The program was assessed by parents' daily reports of their child's compliance with the routine and the number of noncompliant behaviors exhibited and reminders needed that morning. The parents also recorded whether or not the child was ready on time and how long it took the child to get ready. Further, the children were asked to rate daily how well they and their parent got along that morning. Treatment acceptability measures were also taken. The studies demonstrated the effectiveness of the program in increasing on-time behavior and compliance, as well as in decreasing the amount of time taken to prepare to leave and the number of noncompliant behaviors and reminders. Further, a decrease in the number of negative interactions between the parents and children was noted, thus, making mornings a more positive experience for the family. Finally, in terms of treatment acceptability, the parents rated the procedure as easy to use, effective, improving the child's compliance, and as decreasing morning conflicts. Potential problems with the program are discussed, as are future research directions.     

Behavior problems and peer rejection in preschool boys and girls

The authors tested the hypothesis that deviant behaviors within a preschool peer group would be linked with peer rejection, irrespective of child gender. Seventy-six children, aged 3 to 5 years, participated. Teachers rated children's behavior on the Child Adaptive Behavior Inventory, and children provided sociometric ratings. For a subsample of children (n = 47), observers coded aggressive, noncompliant, and withdrawn behavior using a time-sampling system. For both boys and girls, noncompliance, hyperactivity, and social withdrawal were associated with peer rejection; overt aggression was associated with peer rejection for boys, but not for girls. Analysis revealed that approximately half of the variance in sociometric and teacher ratings of peer rejection was accounted for by aggression and social withdrawal for both boys and girls. The results suggest that the association between behavior problems and peer rejection emerges at a very early age.     

Behavior Problems and Peer Rejection in Preschool Boys and Girls

The authors tested the hypothesis that deviant behaviors within a preschool peer group would be linked with peer rejection, irrespective of child gender. Seventy-six children, aged 3 to 5 years, participated. Teachers rated children's behavior on the Child Adaptive Behavior Inventory, and children provided sociometric ratings. For a subsample of children (n = 47), observers coded aggressive, noncompliant, and withdrawn behavior using a time-sampling system. For both boys and girls, noncompliance, hyperactivity, and social withdrawal were associated with peer rejection; overt aggression was associated with peer rejection for boys, but not for girls. Analysis revealed that approximately half of the variance in sociometric and teacher ratings of peer rejection was accounted for by aggression and social withdrawal for both boys and girls. The results suggest that the association between behavior problems and peer rejection emerges at a very early age.     

Adjustment to hemodialysis treatment through behavioral controls

The present study was conducted to examine the hypothesis that compliant chronically ill patients, typically described as adjusted, reinforce more positive social environments using behavioral controls than noncompliant patients, typically described as maladjusted. Specifically, it is hypothesized that diet-compliant chronic hemodialysis patients emit significnatly more active involvement-in-treatment behaviors and more social behaviors than diet-noncompliant chronic hemodialysis patients. Subjects, who ranged in age from 30 to 77 years, were outpatients at a kidney center. Behavioral observations were conducted to assess the occurrence or frequency of (1) four involvement-in-treatment behaviors that are routinely taught to all patients and (2) two social behaviors, which were patient verbalizations and smiles. The results showed that compliant patients emitted significantly more involvement-in-treatment behaviors and smiles than noncompliant patients. Results support the proposed control framework that compliant, in contrast to non-compliant, chronically ill patients have recourse through positive behavioral controls when adjusting to the stresses of illness. It was proposed that through these controls, compliant patients reinforce positive environments rather than simply respond to life circumstances as given.