The Effect of Social-Comparison Feedback on Aggressive Responses to Erotic and Aggressive Films1

A study assessed the effects of social-comparison cues and filmed violence on aggression toward women. Under the auspices of validating some film clips for use in future research, males viewed either erotic, violent sexual, or violent nonsexual films. A male confederate provided social comparison feedback by indicating (or not indicating) that the film degraded women. Self-reports of sexual arousal, affective responses to the films, perceptions of violence, perceptions of pornography, and perceptions of portrayal of women were measured. In a purportedly unrelated learning experiment, males were given the opportunity to aggress toward a female confederate through electric shock. Intensity and duration of shock were measured. Social comparison information caused reductions in self-reports of sexual arousal, affect, and increased perceptions of violence in the erotic film condition only. Social-comparison information caused males to rate the depiction of women as more negative in both the erotic and violent nonsexual conditions. Regardless of film type, social comparison information caused a reduction in perceived realism of the films. Only film condition affected perceptions of pornography, with greater sexual content judged as more pornographic. Social-comparison information reduced the intensity of shocks delivered. Finally, social-comparison information led to reduced duration of shock in all film conditions; however, this effect appeared to dissipate in the violent sexual condition. Implications are discussed.     

Sexual Sensation Seeking and Sexual Compulsivity Scales: Validity,and Predicting HIV Risk Behavior

Two studies are presented that evaluate newly developed scales of sensation seeking and sexual compulsivity. Results showed that the scales were reliable and correlated with convergent and divergent measures in expected directions in samples of both gay men (N = 296) and inner city low-income men and women (N = 158). Consistent with theories of sensation seeking, the scales corresponded to an attraction toward a range of sexual practices, including increased frequencies of unprotected intercourse and a greater number of sexual partners. As expected, sexual compulsivity was not related to variety and novelty in sexual practices, but was associated with lower levels of self-esteem and resistance to adopting sexual risk-reducing strategies. However, important differences were observed between the gay men and heterosexual samples; scales correlated with substance use only among gay men, and sexual compulsivity was related to a range of sexual practices only among heterosexuals. The sensation seeking and Sexual Compulsivity Scales were therefore reliable, appeared valid, and useful in predicting sexual risk behaviors.     

At the movies with Buss and Durkee: A natural experiment on film violence

Research on the effects of violence depicted in films shown in movie theatres has been neglected, although there are reasons to believe such presentations may be particularly salient for the viewer. In the present study, adult movie-goers attending commercial showings of a violent or non-violent movie responded to a questionnaire consisting of two scales of the Buss-Durkee aggression inventory, either before or after viewing the film. No sex differences in response were observed. The audience attending the violent film had significantly higher aggression scores than the audience attending the nonviolent film, both before and after viewing. Also, those attending the violent film showed a significant increase in aggression scores, while those at the non-violent film did not. The results demonstrate that audiences who attend violent films have an initially higher level of aggressivity which is heightened after exposure to the violent film. Thus, in order to achieve ecological validity in research on film violence, the characteristics of the audience normally exposed to such films must be taken into consideration. The results also provide support for the hypothesis that attendance at a violent film promotes aggressive tendencies.     

Measuring epistemic curiosity and its diversive and specific components

A questionnaire constructed to assess epistemic curiosity (EC) and perceptual curiosity (PC) curiosity was administered to 739 undergraduates (546 women, 193 men) ranging in age from 18 to 65. The study participants also responded to the trait anxiety, anger, depression, and curiosity scales of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (STPI; Spielberger et al., 1979) and selected subscales of the Sensation Seeking (SSS; Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, & Zoob, 1964) and Novelty Experiencing (NES; Pearson, 1970) scales. Factor analyses of the curiosity items with oblique rotation identified EC and PC factors with clear simple structure. Subsequent analyses of the EC items provided the basis for developing an EC scale, with Diversive and Specific Curiosity subscales. Moderately high correlations of the EC scale and subscales with other measures of curiosity provided strong evidence of convergent validity. Divergent validity was demonstrated by minimal correlations with trait anxiety and the sensation-seeking measures, and essentially zero correlations with the STPI trait anger and depression scales. Male participants had significantly higher scores on the EC scale and the NES External Cognition subscale (effect sizes of r =.16 and.21, respectively), indicating that they were more interested than female participants in solving problems and discovering how things work. Male participants also scored significantly higher than female participants on the SSS Thrill-and-Adventure and NES External Sensation subscales (r =.14 and.22, respectively), suggesting that they were more likely to engage in sensation-seeking activities.     

A Danish version of the Sensation Seeking Scale and its relation to a broad spectrum of behavioral and psychological characteristics

The primary purpose of the present study was to evaluate the internal consistency and construct validity of the Danish translation of Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS). The secondary aim was to extend the range of psychological variables and behaviors that have been related to sensation seeking. The sample consisted of 691 subjects (363 males and 328 females) with a mean age of 31.7 years. The internal consistency of the scales was evaluated by coefficient alpha and intercorrelations among the five scales derived from the SSS were computed. Information on other variables was collected through standardized tests as well as questionnaires and interviews developed especially for this study. The results showed that the Danish SSS is a psychometrically sound instrument and revealed the relationship between sensation seeking and a broad spectrum of psychological traits and behaviors: socioeconomic status, academic achievement, intelligence, personality, smoking, alcohol and drug use, sexuality, driving and public transportation violations, and leisure time activities. Thus, this study confirmed and expanded the findings of many previous studies, while the results supported the validity of the Danish SSS and corroborated the usefulness of the concept of sensation seeking.     

Psychoticism and sexual arousal to rape depictions

This study tested the hypothesis that high scorers on the Eysencks' P scale would become more sexually aroused by erotic material of a violent nature than low scorers. One hundred and forty-five college Ss were exposed to erotic auditory messages varying in degree of violence and pain experienced by the victim. Personality was assessed by a median split on the Eysencks' P scale. Sexual arousal was assessed by mercury strain gauge and self-report. Results, as predicted, showed a significant interaction between psychoticism and level of violence (rape vs nonrape): high P scorers showing greater sexual arousal (by both self-report and physiological assessment) to rape as compared to nonrape depictions whereas the opposite pattern occurred for low P scorers.     

Consistency of the labial temperature change measure of human female eroticism

Six adult, human female volunteers participated in a study to determine the consistency of their pattern of sexual arousal to two erotic films over two experimental sessions. Sexual arousal was assessed objectively by means of continuous measurement of temperature changes of the labia minora and subjectively by periodic self-ratings. Each subject developed increases in labial temperature to both film presentations that ranged from about 0.10°C to 1.36°C above basal levels. The amount of temperature change in a subject's labia minora during the first film presentation was significantly correlated with that during the second film, and there was a reasonable degree of consistency across the two sessions with regard to the rate at which the subject's labial temperature subsided towards basal levels after the cessation of erotic stimulation. Labial temperature changes and subjective ratings were also significantly correlated during each of the two film presentations.     

Loving, liking, looking and sensation seeking in unmarried college couples

This study examined the relationships between sensation seeking or sensation seeking similarity and relationship satisfaction in college couples. Fifty-eight couples were tested with the Sensation Seeking Scale form V and the Loving and Liking Scales, and each couple was observed for eye gaze behavior. Eye gaze was found to be unrelated to the questionnaire measures of relationship involvement and a low but significant negative relationship was found between the female partner's love rating and mutual gaze and focus. As in previous research, couples' sensation seeking scores were significantly correlated, indicating tendencies toward assortative mating. However, only the women's relationship satisfaction scores were related to discrepancies in the couples' SSS scores. Individual sensation seeking scores correlated negatively with relationship satisfaction for both sexes. The latter effect was explained in terms of the high sensation seeker having a variety of interests outside of their primary relationships, and stronger tendencies for boredom and independence.     

Sensation seeking and risk taking in mortality salience

This study aimed to examine responses of sensation seekers concerning their tendency to take risks in driving in mortality salience. Ss completed the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking scale (SSS). Two weeks later Ss were divided into two groups; the experimental group, which was exposed to a terrifying video film dealing with consequences of risky driving and a control group with a nature video film. After watching the films, each participant was asked to complete a risk-taking inventory (RT), which referred to the extent of risk s/he would take while driving. High sensation seekers reported more risk taking in driving than sensation avoiders. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found between Mortality Salience and Sensation Seeking regarding risky driving, especially speeding. The implications of these findings on the well-established educational approaches based on terror are presented in the discussion.     

Platelet MAO activity associated with impulsivity and aggressivity

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and scales purporting to measure sensation seeking, impulsivity and introversion-schizoidia, and scales related to aggressivity from two personality inventories, the Karolinska Scales of Personality (KSP) and the Eysenck Impulsiveness- Venturesomeness-Empathy (IVE) inventory were given to 58 male subjects. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity was measured in platelets. The two sensation seeking scales were not associated with platelet MAO activity in the present subjects. The two impulsivity scales (IVE Impulsiveness and KSP Impulsiveness) and the KSP Irritability scale (an aggressivity-related scale) were negatively correlated with platelet MAO activity. Subgroups classified on the basis of platelet MAO activity differed in IVE Impulsiveness, KSP Detachment (introversion-schizoidia) and in KSP Irritability, low MAO subjects scoring higher in Impulsiveness and Irritability and high MAO subjects higher in Detachment. There were striking differences between the low MAO subgroup and the other subgroups in the percentage agreement responses in items of the IVE Impulsiveness scale, as well as in self-rated anger-proneness.     

Sensation seeking and food preferences

The relationships between sensation seeking and preferences for various foods were studied. A Japanese version of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) and food preference questionnaire were administered to a total of 105 students (66 males and 39 females). Preference ratings of 70 foods were factor analyzed and 7 factors concerning food preference patterns were extracted. Preference ratings for food items with high loadings on these 7 factors were correlated with subjects' scores on SSS. Significant and positive correlations were found between total scores of SSS and the preference ratings for spicy foods (loading on factor 1), meats (loading on factor 4), and alcoholic beverages (loading on factor 6). Among subscales of SSS, following subscores correlated significantly and positively with preference for several food groups: (1) ES, TAS and spicy foods. (2) TAS and meats, ES and a few items of meats. (3) TAS, BS and alcoholic beverages. But, Dis scale did not correlate with any food groups. Common features and differences between the results of present research and previous ones connected in the U.S.A. were discussed.     

Habituation and dishabituation of female sexual arousal

Measures of subjective and physiological sexual arousal were taken within a session while women either viewed the same segment of erotic film on many occasions or employed the same sexual fantasy over a number of trials. For both film and fantasy there were significant reductions in subjective sexual arousal and average pulse amplitude during the course of repeated erotic stimulation. Subsequent presentation of novel erotic stimuli led to recovery in sexual arousal. Bases for habituation and dishabituation of female sexual arousal are discussed.     

Sensation seeking and antisocial behaviour in a student sample

In order to test the relationship between sensation seeking, as measured by the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) Form V, and antisocial behaviour, evaluated by a Self-reported Delinquency (SRD) scale, a correlational study in a student sample was carried out. The results obtained show, as predicted, a positive relationship between either the SSS Total score or its subscales, (Experience Seeking and Disinhibition) with the SRD. The other SSS subscales, to a lesser extent, also show a similar pattern of correlation.     

Sensation seeking, impulsive decision-making, and risky sex: implications for risk-taking and design of interventions

In an HIV prevention study, 2949 ninth-grade students in 17 high schools in two Midwestern U.S. cities were administered scales measuring sensation seeking and impulsive decision-making and their separate and combined relationships to a number of indicators of sexual risk-taking. Measures of sexual risk-taking included intentions to have sex, ever had sex, number of lifetime sexual partners, been pregnant or caused a pregnancy, used a condom, used marijuana, had unwanted sex when drunk, had unwanted sex under pressure, said no to sex, used alcohol or partner used alcohol before sex. Strong associations were observed between each of the measures and sexual risk-taking for most of the indicators. Strongest associations were found among sexually active students high on both sensation seeking and impulsive decision-making and weakest associations among students low on both measures. Implications for design of interventions in health campaigns are discussed.     

Developing a Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Children: Establishing Concurrent Validity With Video Game Use and Rule-Breaking Behavior

Despite the importance of life-cycle models to sensation seeking research, past studies have typically focused on adolescents and adults. This is especially problematic for researchers studying the role of media use in the development of risky behaviors (e.g., violent video game consumption and aggressive behavior). To facilitate research with child populations, a brief sensation seeking scale for children (BSSS-C) is developed and validated with a sample of fourth, fifth, and sixth graders (N = 136). The BSSS-C is found to be internally reliable (α = .82) as well as a strong predictor of several risky child behaviors. Higher sensation seeking children were more likely to play video games, including violent subgenres (e.g., shooters), and to enjoy playing video games that contained specific acts of violence (e.g., weapon use). Higher sensation seekers were also more likely to engage in rule-breaking behavior, such as bringing prohibited cell phones to school. The results suggest that sensation seeking may be related to risky behavior at a very young age.     

Experience and desire: A new format for Sensation Seeking Scales

A new form (VI) of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) was developed which separates reports of past experiences from desired or intended future experiences on both Disinhibition (Dis) and Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) factors. Factor analyses were used to select items for the scales. High internal reliabilities were found for the Experience-Dis, Intention-TAS, and Intention-Dis scales, but only moderate reliability was found for the Experience-TAS scale. Retest reliabilities were high for all scales. The Experience-TAS and -Dis scales were highly correlated for males but not for females. The Experience- and Intention-TAS scales were moderately correlated, and the Experience- and Intention-Dis scales were highly correlated for both sexes. Both the TAS and the Dis scales on form V were highly correlated with the corresponding Intention scales on form VI. Uses for the new SS scales in individual assessment are suggested.A copy of SSS form VI may be obtained from the author.     

Sexual Sensation Seeking: Scale Development and Predicting AIDS-Risk Behavior Among Homosexually Active Men

Sensation seeking, the propensity to prefer exciting, optimal, and novel stimulation or arousal, is a potential mediating factor in sexual risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection (HIV), the cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, the most widely used measure of sensation seeking, the Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, & Zoob. 1964). contains numerous culturally outdated items and items that do not pertain to sexual behavior, in this study, 106 homosexually active men completed newly developed measures of sensation seeking related to sexual and nonsexual experiences, as well as a measure of sexual compulsivity. Results show that the new scales were internally consistent and time-stable. Additional analyses demonstrated convergent, divergent, and discriminant validity for these scales, showing them to be of use as mediating variables in models of high-risk sexual behavior. Implications for HIV prevention and behavior change are discussed.     

Construct validity and personality correlates of the Strelau temperament inventory

Strelau's reinterpretation of Pavlov's concept of nervous system properties has gained increasing attention in Western personality research, both with regard to the psychometric properties of the Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI) and with regard to the interrelations between STI and Western personality dimensions. The present study investigated the construct validity of the Strength of Excitation scale by examining its relationship to experimental indices of strength of the nervous system. Secondly, data on the convergence between STI, EPQ, SSS IV, and trait anxiety measures are presented, using German translations of all the questionnaires. The results confirmed the correlation between strength of excitation and a reaction time based measure of strength of the nervous system. A factor analysis on the questionnaire scales identified two factors. Factor I (activity/stimulation seeking) consisted of extroversion, mobility, strength of excitation and the sensation seeking scales whereas Factor II (instability vs control) was composed of anxiety/neuroticism/ psychoticism and strength of excitation/strength of inhibition/social desirability. These findings agree with Eysenck's and Strelau's theoretical predictions regarding the interrelations of Pavlovian properties and Western personality dimensions.