Personality and aesthetic preference in Spain and England: two studies relating sensation seeking and openness to experience to liking for paintings and music

In two studies, one employing Spanish students and the other English students, questionnaire measures of Sensation Seeking and Openness to Experience were correlated with liking for major music types, several short music excerpts, and eight categories of painting (presented as slides). Inter‐correlations between music preference measures, painting preference, and personality are reported. In both samples, the Sensation Seeking Scale (Form V) and, particularly, the Experience Seeking sub‐scale were associated with a factor contrasting liking for ‘hard rock’ music and ‘violent–abstract’ art with liking for ‘neutral–realistic’ art and ‘easy listening’ music. Several substantial relationships between aesthetics measures and Openness to Experience (from the NEO‐PI‐R) were also found, though mostly in the English sample. The results reinforce the view that personality dimensions such as Sensation Seeking and Openness are important influences on aesthetic judgment. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Factor structure and construct validity of the Vando reducer-augmenter scale

Factor analysis of 262 college students' responses to Vando's (1970, 1974) Reducer-Augmenter Scale (RAS) yielded three factors interpreted as Musical Reducing-Augmenting, General Lifestyle Reducing-Augmenting and Physical Thrill Seeking. Responses by 175 other students and by 238 male correctional inmates showed very similar solutions on target rotation. Subscale scores based on the three factors were correlated against the Eysenck Personality Inventory, the Sensation Seeking Scale, the Novelty-experiencing Scale, the Arousal-Seeking-Tendency Scale, hours of sleep, absolute auditory threshold and personally set volume for listening to stereo music. Some major findings were as follows: (1) The General Lifestyle subscale correlates substantially with measures of arousal and sensation seeking; (2) the Physical Thrill Seeking subscale correlates substantially with other measures of physical thrill seeking; (3) the Musical subscale correlates substantially with preferred stereo volume [r(73) = 0.51, P < 0.01], but not with absolute auditory threshold [r(40) = 0.08, NS]. Implications for the construct validity of the RAS and possible future refinement of the scale are discussed.     

Experience and desire: A new format for Sensation Seeking Scales

A new form (VI) of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) was developed which separates reports of past experiences from desired or intended future experiences on both Disinhibition (Dis) and Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) factors. Factor analyses were used to select items for the scales. High internal reliabilities were found for the Experience-Dis, Intention-TAS, and Intention-Dis scales, but only moderate reliability was found for the Experience-TAS scale. Retest reliabilities were high for all scales. The Experience-TAS and -Dis scales were highly correlated for males but not for females. The Experience- and Intention-TAS scales were moderately correlated, and the Experience- and Intention-Dis scales were highly correlated for both sexes. Both the TAS and the Dis scales on form V were highly correlated with the corresponding Intention scales on form VI. Uses for the new SS scales in individual assessment are suggested.A copy of SSS form VI may be obtained from the author.     

The prediction of drug use among college students from MMPI, MCMI, and sensation seeking scales

This study examines the ability of five self-report assessment measures to predict college students' drug use across 12 pharmacological drug categories. Subjects were 125 female and 61 male university undergraduate students. The test battery included the following instruments: the Psychopathic Deviancy (Pd) scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI); the MacAndrew Alcoholism scale (MAC), a special scale of the MMPI; the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS); the Millon Alcohol Abuse Scale; and the Millon Drug Abuse Scale. Scores from these instruments were utilized in linear combinations to predict individual drug use outcomes as well as polydrug versus single drug use patterns. The drug categories included in this investigation are coffee, tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, tranquilizers, depressants, amphetamines, LSD, other hallucinogens, solvents, narcotics, and cocaine. Results demonstrate significant and meaningful relationships between predictors and drug use levels among college students. Weighted equations derived from linear discriminant function analyses were generally capable of accurately classifying subject's drug use levels across drug categories and in discriminating single drug use from polydrug use patterns. Typically, the Sensation Seeking Scale entered as the most powerful predictor of substance use and abuse.     

Sensation seeking and estimation of numerosity

In a sample of 81 subjects, significant negative correlations were obtained between scores on Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale and estimates of numerosity. A cognitive view of sensation seeking was suggested, according to which high scores are a function of an underestimation of the amount of stimulation experienced and low scores a function of overestimation. This approach was discussed in relation to motivational theories and those involving strength of the nervous system.     

An Assessment of the Psychometric Properties of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Children

Sensation seeking is a trait that predicts a wide range of real-life risk behavior, such as substance abuse and gambling problems. Sensation seeking is often assessed with the Sensation Seeking Scale. Several adaptations of this questionnaire have been made, for example, to abbreviate it and to make it suitable for children. However, studies on sensation seeking in children are scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate sensation seeking in children (N = 158, M age = 11.4 years). The Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Children (BSSS–C) was translated into Dutch and psychometric properties were examined. Internal consistency was high, and the factor structure showed close resemblance with previous research. Test–retest and split-half reliabilities were acceptable, as was convergent validity with self-reported symptoms of psychopathology (attention problems and aggressive behavior). Construct validity was adequate, with more sensation seeking in boys than in girls. No effects of age were found. To sum up, sensation seeking can be measured in children in a valid and reliable way. The correlation of sensation seeking with high-risk behaviors emphasizes the importance of assessment early in development.     

Sensation seeking, aggression, and reckless behavior in high school students, college students, and adults

Replicating work of Arnett, males reported more frequent Reckless Behavior than females, and 27 high school and 48 college students did not differ in scores on Sensation Seeking or Aggression. As anticipated by Arnett, the 35 adults had significantly lower Sensation Seeking and Aggression scores than the two younger groups and less Reckless Behavior as well. In contrast to Arnett, Reckless Behavior did not rise for college students, and Sensation Seeking, but not Aggression, correlated with Reckless Behavior in all samples.     

Rorschach Scores as a Function of Examiner Difference

This study examines the ability of five self-report assessment measures to predict college students' drug use across 12 pharmacological drug categories. Subjects were 125 female and 61 male university undergraduate students. The test battery included the following instruments: (a) the Psychopathic Deviancy (Pd) scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI); (b) the MacAndrew Alcoholism scale (MAC), a special scale of the MMPI; (c) the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS); (d) the Millon Alcohol Abuse Scale; and (e) the Millon Drug Abuse Scale. Scores from these instruments were utilized in linear combinations to predict individual drug use outcomes as well as polydrug versus single drug use patterns. The drug categories included in this investigation are coffee, tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, tranquilizers, depressants, amphetamines, LSD, other hallucinogens, solvents, narcotics, and cocaine. Results demonstrate significant and meaningful relationships between predictors and drug use levels among college students. Weighted equations derived from linear discriminant function analyses were generally capable of accurately classifying subject's drug use levels across drug categories and in discriminating single drug use from polydrug use patterns. Typically, the Sensation Seeking Scale entered as the most powerful predictor of substance use and abuse.     

Sensation seeking, augmenting-reducing, and absolute auditory threshold: a strength-of-the-nervous-system perspective

The following measures were obtained from 42 student volunteers: the General and the Disinhibition subscales of the Sensation Seeking Scale (Form IV), the Reducer-Augmenter Scale, and the Absolute Auditory Threshold. General sensation seeking correlated significantly with the Reducer-Augmenter Scale, r(40) = .59, p less than .001, and the Absolute Auditory Threshold, r(40) = .45, p less than .005. Both results proved general across sex. These findings, that high-sensation seekers tend to be reducers and to lack sensitivity to weak stimulation, were interpreted as supporting strength-of-the-nervous-system theory more than the formulation of Zuckerman and his associates.     

Individual differences in sensation seeking and attentional ability

Evidence is provided that high scores on the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale are associated in the normal population with good focused-attention performance and poor distributed-attention performance. Focused-attention performance is assessed as the ability to select relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information, and distributed-attention performance is assessed as the ability to carry out concurrently two independent complex tasks. It is hypothesized that the observed disposition of attentional performance reflects differential patterns of arousal in individuals with high and low Sensation Seeking scores.     

Motion sickness history, food neophobia, and sensation seeking

Motion sickness is believed to be caused by conflicting sensory signals, a situation that mimics the effects of ingesting certain toxins. Thus, one might suspect that individuals who have experienced a relatively high frequency of motion sickness may be particularly vigilant about avoiding anything that produces nausea, induding potentially nauseating toxins. Consequently, they may be more resistant to trying new foods, i.e., be more food neophobic, since unfamiliar foods can have unexpected adverse effects due to toxins or allergens. Likewise, many highly stimulating experiences can trigger motion sickness, so individuals who are more susceptible may be more prone to avoid such experiences, i.e., be less sensation seeking. Finally, it was expected that food neophobia would be more frequent in individuals low on sensation seeking tendencies. Self-reported motion sickness history in 308 adults (M= 18.8 yr.; SD = 1.6) was correlated with scores on the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking and the Food Neophobia Scale. As predicted, greater history of motion sickness was associated with lower Sensation Seeking scores. Food Neophobia was not correlated with motion sickness history but, as expected, was negatively correlated (r = -.42) with scores on Sensation Seeking. Further research is recommended that measures actual sensitivity to motion sickness.     

Disinhibitory sensation seeking,personality and gonadal hormones

The study compared normal males who scored at the extremes of Disinhibition (a subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale) on gonadal hormones. High disinhibitors were higher than lows on testosterone, estradiol and estrone, but not on progesterone. A broader range of personality traits, attitudes and experience was factor analyzed and correlated with the hormone measurements. Two large factors were found: (1) stable extraversion vs neurotic introversion; (2) social deviancy vs social conformity. Testosterone loaded positively on the stable extraversion factor and estradiol loaded on the social deviancy factor. Measures of sensation seeking, impulsivity and heterosexual experience tended to correlate positively with both testosterone and estradiol, and persons low on both of these hormones were characterized by a high degree of self control and social conformity.     

A junior sensation seeking scale (J-SSS)

Taking as a model the Sensation Seeking Scale, Form V (SSS), we constructed a 50-item Spanish experimental version of a Junior Sensation Seeking Scale (J-SSS), 10 items for each subscale: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (Dis) and Boredom Susceptibility (BS), as well as a 10-item Lie (L) scale. After administering the J-SSS to two primary and secondary pupil samples from around Barcelona, the Spanish version of the J-SSS showed acceptable 1-month test-retest and α-reliabilities and acceptable validity.     

Music and social identity: Stylistic identification as a response to musical style

One function of music is considered to be defining social identity for oneself and for others. This aspect of musical styles was investigated in the light of Social Identity Theory by examining how a college student population described fans of different musical styles. Respondents were questioned about their perception of listeners of six musical styles, two of which were indigenous to Turkey. Three basic dimensions that described the listeners of these styles emerged as the result of factor and scale reliability analyses. These dimensions were labelled the sophisticated, the sprightly, and the loser. Respondents associated these features with fans of different styles to different extents. The sprightly dimension characterized listeners of pop, rock, and rap best. The sophisticated dimension was most closely associated with listeners of classical and Turkish folk music. Listening to Arabesk, which is a style that is specific to Turkey, was most closely associated with the loser dimension. Consistent with the predictions of Social Identity Theory, evaluations by a person were affected by the attitude of that person towards a style in the cases of rock and Turkish folk music. Especially on the sophisticated dimension, respondents who liked rock or Turkish folk music rated the listeners of these styles closer to the ideal than respondents who disliked them. However, the self‐evaluations of these groups were similar. Furthermore, respondents typically described themselves as being closer to the ideal value on the three dimensions than the listeners of musical styles they liked. These results provide considerable support for the idea that liking a musical style shows characteristics of group membership according to Social Identity Theory.     

Correlates of sensation seeking by heavy, chronic drug users

Product-moment correlations among number of drugs used and several measures of constructs related to sensation seeking were examined for four matched groups of chronic drug users and two supplementary groups of nine persons each. Number of drugs used correlated positively with all scores on the Sensation Seeking Scales, the Extraversion and Neuroticism Scales of the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and the Change Seeker Index. The pattern is consistent with the proposition that a need for stimulation or change underlies experimentation with a large number of chemical substances. The general pattern of correlations among tests resembled that reported by other investigators. The construct validity of the General Score from the Sensation Seeking Scales is enhanced by these findings. The data suggest that this score measures much the same construct as the Change Seeker Index.     

Headache and sensation seeking

According to the cognitive theory of sensation seeking, headache sufferers were predicted to score lower than controls on Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale. 26 subjects who experienced chronic headaches scored significantly lower than a group of 26 controls. The relationships between the Sensation Seeking Scale and a number of personality tests are described. Replication of the findings on this scale with headache patients is encouraged as well as exploration of other personality dimensions which show significant relations with sensation seeking.     

Sensation seeking and food preferences

The relationships between sensation seeking and preferences for various foods were studied. A Japanese version of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) and food preference questionnaire were administered to a total of 105 students (66 males and 39 females). Preference ratings of 70 foods were factor analyzed and 7 factors concerning food preference patterns were extracted. Preference ratings for food items with high loadings on these 7 factors were correlated with subjects' scores on SSS. Significant and positive correlations were found between total scores of SSS and the preference ratings for spicy foods (loading on factor 1), meats (loading on factor 4), and alcoholic beverages (loading on factor 6). Among subscales of SSS, following subscores correlated significantly and positively with preference for several food groups: (1) ES, TAS and spicy foods. (2) TAS and meats, ES and a few items of meats. (3) TAS, BS and alcoholic beverages. But, Dis scale did not correlate with any food groups. Common features and differences between the results of present research and previous ones connected in the U.S.A. were discussed.     

Relation of transliminality and sensation seeking

The Revised Transliminality Scale and Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Form V) were administered to 83 psychology undergraduates. Weak positive correlations suggested that participants scoring high on the Transliminality Scale tended to be more experience seeking and, overall, more inclined to score sensation seeking.     

Avocational sensation seeking in high and low risk-taking occupations

This study investigated whether people engaged in high risk-taking occupations (involving placing themselves or others in jeopardy) would seek or prefer highly stimulating activities of a nonvocational nature more than people engaged in low risk-taking occupations. One hundred air traffic controllers (high risk-takers) were compared with 78 civil service employees and college students (low risk-takers). The high risk-taking group scored significantly higher than the low risk-taking group on all five dimensions of the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale, indicating a higher need for sensation stimulation. These findings lend support to the proposition that risk-taking as a response style is related to occupational group membership.     

Restrained eaters are rapidly habituating sensation seekers

Several authors have pointed to similarities between eating disorders and addictive behaviors. In earlier studies, addicts were found to score high on the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) and to habituate rapidly to neutral stimuli. In this study, we found experimental support for an addiction model of eating disorders: restrained eaters also scored significantly higher on the Sensation Seeking Scale and also habituated significantly quicker to a series of neutral stimuli than unrestrained eaters. No clear evidence was found for the hypothesis that restrained eaters score lower on measurements of anxiety. It is hypothesized that rapid habituation promotes sensation seeking, which may be manifested in excessive consumption of either drugs or food. Restraint may be a strategy to prevent negative consequences of sensation seeking and excessive consumption. The model is related to earlier experimental findings.