National differences in personality: India and England

This study reports comparisons between results on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) obtained from 558 male and 636 female Indian Ss; the comparison group of the original standardized English Sample (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1975). Factor analysis of item correlations showed close correspondence between the factors extracted in the two samples, with indices of factor comparisons being well in excess of 0.97. The reliabilities in the Indian sample were only marginally lower than in the original English standardization group. Some items from the original EPQ did not load on the hypothesized factors; they were substituted by the extra items contained in the 101-item version of the EPQ used in India. The Indian data showed no sex differences with respect to extraversion; females were found to score higher on the Neuroticism and also slightly higher on the Lie scale than the males. The Lie scores for both males and females being quite high suggests a consistent trait of conformity in operation. It was concluded that the organization of personality in India is sufficiently similar to that in England to make national comparisons feasible since identical dimensions underlie the personalities of Indian and English Ss.     

Two experiments on the relation between psychoticism and response uncertainty in normal subjects

Previous studies have suggested that schizophrenics are affected by response uncertainty to a greater degree than normals or other psychiatric groups. Two studies examined whether a similar pattern of performance would be produced in normal Ss scoring high on questionnaire measures presumed to measure psychotic predisposition. The Psychoticism (P) scales from the EPQ and the unpublished PEN Inventory were employed; and response uncertainty was varied using a card-sorting procedure. In Experiment 1 males were more affected by increases in response uncertainty than females, but there was no difference between Ss scoring high and low on the P scales. Experiment 2 included a condition in which guide-cards were randomly reordered between trials. There was a highly significant tendency for Ss scoring high on the PEN P scale to be more affected by response uncertainty in this experiment. Again males were more influenced by uncertainty than females, but this was due largely to their performance under the condition where guide-cards were varied. Ss high on EPQ P also showed decremental performance under this condition. The data provided partial support for the validity of the P scales, particularly the PEN version of the scale, as indices of schizophrenic predisposition.     

How personality relates to intelligence test performance: Implications for a theory of intelligence,ageing research and personality assessment

Previously reported findings indicate that variation of EEG evoked potential parameters is strongly related to both personality and intelligence differences (Robinson, 1982a, b). These data and the associated theory imply that personality should relate to intelligence test performance. Results are described in this report which indicate that subtest profiles obtained with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) differ significantly for Ss scoring highest and lowest on the Extraversion (E) scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ); introverts tend to do better on the ‘Verbal’ subtests while extraverts tend to do better on the ‘Performance’ measures. Ss with middling scores on the E scale of the EPQ can also be distinguished in terms of specific WAIS profiles. In this case the results define two contrasting groups. Young male Ss with middling E scores tend to have high Psychoticism (P) and low Lie (L) scores on the EPQ as well as having distinctive WAIS profiles characterized by higher scores on subtests normally associated with a ‘Memory’ or ‘Attention-Concentration’ factor. Higher scores were also obtained by this subgroup on the Picture Arrangement and Block Design subtests which were previously shown to load a P + /L ? factor. The converse is true for older female Ss who also have middling E scores. As well as demonstrating a systematic relationship between personality and intelligence test performance these data provide some further support for a model of brain-behaviour relationships proposed by Robinson. Within this theoretical framework a neurophysiologically meaningful explanation can be provided for the three major factors that reliably emerge in factor-analytic studies of the WAIS. From an applied viewpoint, the data indicate that personality differences can be assessed from performance on tests such as the WAIS. On this issue the results are discussed with particular reference to Gittinger's Personality Assessment System. Implications for ageing research are also discussed.     

An empirical study of the validity of handwriting analysis

The EPQ was administered to 99 Ss, and a handwriting sample provided by each. A professional graphologist undertook to analyse the handwritings, and fill in the EPQ as she thought would have been done by the respondents. Significant correlations were only obtained for the P category; neither E, nor N, nor the L scale showed significant correlations between Ss and the graphologist.     

Personality and performance on a missing-letter measure of perceptual defence

Fifty-two Ss were required to make complete words from 20 neutral and 20 unpleasant ‘target’ words whose alternate letters had been removed. The four personality scales from the EPQ and the Psychoticism scale from the unpublished PEN inventory were employed as independent variables in repeated-measures analyses of variance in which the dependent variable was the number of neutral or bad target words produced in the missing-letter task. A significant two-way interaction was obtained between PEN Psychoticism and performance on the task, such that Ss scoring low on the personality scale hit significantly more neutral targets than Ss scoring high on the scale. These results did not support previous studies on the relationship between personality and perceptual defence and were interpreted within the framework provided by Mednick, whereby schizophrenia is characterized by a flattening of associative hierarchies.     

Age norms for impulsiveness,venturesomeness and empathy in adults

A total of 1320 Ss (559 males and 761 females) completed the I₆ Impulsiveness Questionnaire. Reliabilities, scale intercorrelations, means and standard deviations as well as age means are given after some item changes from the original I₅ Questionnaire. The resulting I₇ Impulsiveness Questionnaire is reproduced in the Appendix, together with the scoring key. A further 589 Ss (383 males and 206 females) completed the new I₇, together with the EPQ and intercorrelations of the seven factors obtained are given (i.e. Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism, Lie score, impulsiveness Venturesomeness and Empathy). A table of means and standard deviations for this second sample of Ss is also given for the sake of completeness.     

Further analysis of the social psychopathy scale

This paper presents a further examination of the Social Psychopathy Scale (SPS) which was designed to measure psychopathic-like characteristics in normal samples; until the present study, data was only available for U.S. subjects. The SPS, Socialization Scale (SO) and the EPQ were administered to 92 U.K. subjects. The mean scores and factor structure of the SPS obtained in the present study were compared with those obtained in a previous study with U.S. subjects and revealed only a limited degree of correspondence. There was a predicted negative correlation between the SPS and SO and predicted positive correlation between the SPS and the P-scale of the EPQ. There was some variability in the relationship between the SO and subscales of the EPQ with the factors of the SPS obtained in the present study. Two aspects of the results are discussed: the variability in the factor structure of the SPS, and the nature of the concept of social psychopathy.     

Effects of repeated exposure to sexually violent or nonviolent stimuli on sexual arousal to rape and nonrape depictions

The major purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of repeated exposure to sexually violent stimuli (SVS) in relatively ‘naturalistic settings’ on sexual arousal to rape and nonrape stimuli. Repeated exposure effects using nonviolent erotica were also examined. Sixty-nine male Ss participated in the study. A preexposure session was conducted in which Ss were exposed to written and pictorial depictions of rape and mutually-consenting intercourse. Based on Ss' penile tumescence to these depictions, they were classified as either Force-oriented, Nonforce-oriented or Unclassifiable. Subsequently, Ss were randomly assigned to sexually violent (SVS), sexually nonviolent (SNVS) or control conditions within each force-orientation group. Those assigned to the SVS condition were then exposed to 10 SVS including feature-length films and written and pictorial depictions over a period of 4 weeks. Ss in the SNVS condition were exposed to 10 similar media presentations depicting sexually nonviolent activities only. Ss in the control condition were not exposed to any stimuli during this 4-week period. Soon after completion of the exposure phase, Ss returned for a postexposure laboratory session in which they were presented with four depictions that were similar in theme to those in the preexposure session. Penile tumescence scores and self-reports of sexual arousal were obtained. Results revealed that, for Force-oriented Ss, those exposed to either SVS or SNVS were less aroused to the rape depictions in the postexposure session than those in the control condition. A similar pattern occurred with the nonrape depictions for these Ss, though it was considerably less pronounced. No evidence of a similar ‘satiation’ pattern was obtained for either Nonforce-oriented or Unclassifiable Ss, with these Ss showing no significant differences among the three exposure conditions. The findings are discussed in the context of cognitions, personality differences, conditioning processes, stimulus parameters and response habituation theories. Social and clinical implications are also discussed.     

Addictive personality traits in bulimic patients

Forty-five female patients attending for treatment for bulimia nervosa completed the EPQ and an Impulsiveness Inventory (I₇). An Addiction score, derived from items on the EPQ, was obtained confirming that this group of bulimic patients score almost as high as drug addicts and certainly well above the normal range. On individual personality scales, the bulimic Ss scored higher than normals on N, P, Imp and Emp, but lower on E, Vent and Social Desirability.     

The relationship of personality to punctuality for a variety of types of appointment

The punctuality with which undergraduate students kept four distinct types of appointment was observed without their knowledge. Ss were asked to record, confidentially, the importance with which they regarded each appointment, using a 7-point scale. A frequency distribution of the proportion of appointments kept punctually approximated to a normal distribution (rather than the bimodal distribution predicted by ‘common sense’). Both punctuality and importance-rating were strongly affected by appointment type. Ss' scores on the P scale of the EPQ were inversely related to the importance they attributed to appointments, but showed little relationship to punctuality. Their scores on the E scale, on the other hand, were inversely related to punctuality for most types of appointment, but were not related to the importance attributed to appointments. Ss' N scores were positively related to punctuality for those appointments that were generally regarded as ‘extremely important’. A small interaction effect between gender of the Ss and type of appointment may have been due to the gender of the majority of the experimenters' collaborators. A principal-components analysis revealed a primary factor on which punctuality, importance-rating, E score and P score all load highly, i.e. a ‘concern for appointments’ factor.     

Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating in Three Cultures: Argentina, Brazil, and the U.S.

Body dissatisfaction and associated attitudes were studied in 18–24?years old women from universities in Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina (N?=?118), Jo?o Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil (N?=?81), and mid-Atlantic U.S. (N?=?102). Based on anecdotal reports, theoretical concerns, and empirical studies, we expected greater body dissatisfaction and negative body attitudes in our Argentine and Brazilian samples than in the U.S. sample. Body dissatisfaction was a significant problem in all samples, but we found few differences in levels of body dissatisfaction. The Argentine and Brazilian samples scored lower than the U.S. sample on measures associated with disordered eating, experienced less pressure to be thin, and were less likely to internalize the thin body ideal. Body shame was highest in the Brazilian sample and lowest in the Argentine sample. Cultural features in Argentina and Brazil that may offer some level of protection against the thin body ideal were discussed.     

Personality and female criminals in Bangladesh

A study is reported of female criminals at Dacca Jail, using the EPQ standardized in Bangladesh. The Ss of the present investigation were considered as a single group and also divided into groups according to the nature of the crime committed and their age. The major finding that clearly emerged from the study is that the female criminals returned very high P scores. They were also found to have elevated scores on N. It is suggested that the translated version of the EPQ be used with male criminal and psychiatrically-abnormal groups in future studies.     

Responding time: A response equivalent to inspection time

A response equivalent to ‘inspection time’ (IT) was developed using a reaction time task in which Ss were required to respond as quickly and accurately as possible to whichever one of two lights appeared on each of a number of trials. The appearance of the lights was followed on all trials by a backward mask. IT was estimated for each S as the shortest duration between the onsets of the light and the backward mask at which the S could respond accurately on virtually every trial. An estimate of ‘responding time’ was then made by setting the duration between the stimulus onset and the mask to each S's individual IT and gradually reducing the time between trials so that Ss had less and less time in which to respond correctly. Responding time was taken to be the shortest such interval at which the S could respond accurately on virtually every trial. This measure was found to be reliable although quantitatively different estimates were obtained using two different methods of presenting the stimulus trials. Responding time was longer for a group of lower-intelligence Ss than for a group of higher-intelligence Ss and the measure was also found to correlate with measured intelligence in the former group. However, it did not itself correlate significantly with IT suggesting that responding time and IT may be measuring different underlying processes.     

Lunar effects on personality test scores: a failure to replicate

A total of 881 Ss completed EPQ and 16PF questionnaires at different dates spanning 2 years. Multivariate analyses of variance of the scores as a function of the phase of the moon at the time of testing revealed no significant effect of moon phase on EPQ scores. Although a significant effect on 16PF scores was found, it was small, confined to three factors and bore little resemblance to the findings of a previously reported study.     

The correlation of EPQ psychoticism with two behavioural measures of impulsivity

The Psychoticism (P) scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) was correlated with performance on two behavioural measures of impulsivity: total number of Errors in a choice reaction-time (RT) task, and number of Taboo Responses in an open-ended creativity test. Experiment 1 employed 20 Ss in an auditory RT situation and using an untimed creativity test. P correlated strongly and positively with a logged Taboo Responses measure but not with a logged Errors score. The correlation of P with Errors reached statistical significance when the biserial correlation of P with Errors/No Errors was calculated. Experiment 2 employed 35 Ss in a visual choice RT situation and using a timed creativity test. Questionnaire scales of Venturesomeness, Impulsiveness and Empathy were also used. Both behavioural indices were significantly correlated with P, but not with Venturesomeness or Impulsiveness. The results constitute further support for the view that the P scale of the EPQ contains a strong impulsivity component.     

Objectified Body Consciousness in a Developing Country: A Comparison of Mothers and Daughters in the US and Nepal

Self-objectification (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997) has been related to negative psychological consequences in U.S. women. However, little cross-cultural research has been done. We compared convenience samples of American and Nepali women on two measures of self-objectification. Pairs of Nepali mothers and daughters (N?=?23) and pairs of U.S. mothers and daughters (N?=?24) completed a quantitative and a qualitative measure of self-objectification. Cultural and generational differences were found. Nepali women engaged in less self-surveillance than U.S. women. Older women engaged in less self-surveillance than younger women. Women in both cultures had high beliefs in their ability to control the body. An additional dimension of body consciousness, termed Functionality, was particularly important to younger Nepali women.     

Psychopathy and the personality dimensions of psychoticism,extraversion and neuroticism

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) was administered to 173 male prison inmates for whom reliable assessments of psychopathy were available. Psychopathy was significantly correlated with the Psychoticism (P) scale (r = 0.16) and the Lie scale (r = 0.14), but not with the Extraversion (E) or Neuroticism (N) scales. Zone (octant) analysis indicated that psychopathy was not associated with any particular combination of P, E and N scores. Additional analyses, based on the discriminant function procedure described in the EPQ manual, indicated that inmates with high assessments of psychopathy were significantly less psychiatrically abnormal, in the EPQ sense, than were those with low assessments of psychopathy. A series of comparisons was also made between the P scale and a 22-item psychopathy checklist. The P scale was significantly correlated with six of the items, and with factors 1 (r = 0.30) and 4 (r = 0.19) that emerged from a principal components analysis of the checklist. Factor 1 is related to an impulsive, unstable lifestyle with no long-term commitments and factor 4 to the early appearance of antisocial behavior. It is argued that the P scale reflects the criminal, antisocial aspects of psychopathy and that the results probably have no direct implications for the suggestion that psychopathy and psychoticism are related in some fundamental way. A canonical analysis indicated that some interesting relations may exist between the EPQ variables and the psychopathy factors.     

Dimensions of perception of posture in dance

This study reports a preliminary investigation designed to assess the possibility of using a semantic differential in the appraisal of expressive characteristics of posture in dance.Twenty still photographs of postures displayed by one female dancer were judged on 25 bipolar scales by 50 Ss. Ratings of eight of these Ss were used for estimating reliabilities of the scales — resulting in elimination of five scales. Intercorrelation matrices of the 20 remaining scales were obtained for each of the 42 remaining Ss. Consideration of homogeneity of the distribution of these matrices led to the exclusion of four of them, leaving 38 matrices for further analysis.After random division of these matrices into two equally sized subgroups, principal component analyses with VARIMAX rotation were carried out on the average intercorrelation matrix for each subgroup. This resulted in two very similar three-factor solutions. The three factors, identified as similar to Osgood's well-known factors of activity, evaluation and potency, accounted for about 55% of the total variance. The results, discussed in terms of Berlyne's conception, suggest that the semantic differential may be a reliable instrument for measuring connotations of posture in dance.     

Intelligence and inspection time: Do high-IQ subjects use cognitive strategies?

It has been suggested that ‘inspection time’ (IT) can be aided by specific strategies, and that high-IQ Ss would therefore be advantaged on this task. However consideration of previously published findings from university students suggest that such strategies cannot currently be taught with any degree of success, and that strategy use may disrupt rather than explain the IT-IQ relationship. Correlations between IT and IQ for high-IQ Ss not using strategies are consistent with previously observed data, perhaps from -0.3 to -0.6. Despite considerable variation in the IT technique used, similar results are being obtained by different researchers. It is not possible to prove that no strategies at all have been used by Ss, but re-interpretation of current evidence suggests that this source of bias is overstressed. By applying Baron's formal criteria for identifying strategies, it becomes possible to test whether strategies have been used or not. Failing a clear statement of what counts as evidence of strategy use, particular strategies must be examined for their impact on IT when Ss have been fully trained in their use.