Intercultural Study of Personal Space: A Case Study

The study of intercultural differences in personal space attempts to identify factors that could be helpful in guiding people from different cultures to live and work together in international ventures. The objective of this research was to measure interpersonal distance in a cross-cultural environment. Twenty-three participants classified in 4 cultural groups answered an 11-questions interview where the personal distance and orientation between seated interactants were measured. Results showed that Anglo Saxons used the largest zone of personal space, followed by Asians, then Caucasians, and, as expected, Mediterraneans and Latinos used the shortest distance. Where Latinos adopt a face-to-face position, Caucasians tend to orient themselves to the side of the interviewer, which has an impact on interpersonal communication.     

Cybertherapy or psychobabble? A mixed methods study of online emotional support

ABSTRACT

The provision of online counselling and emotional support is a subject of intense debate among service providers. The subject is explored here by triangulating data from a statistical analysis of data from a children's helpline, interviews with practitioners and a focus group. Despite practitioners' concerns relating to misinterpretation, misrepresentation and the lack of non-verbal cues, online conversations are shown to span a greater variety of topics and focus on more sensitive issues than verbal sessions. Online services have potential for reaching clients in accessible and meaningful ways. However, practitioners need to consider online-specific issues, undertake specialised training and become comfortable with these new communication formats.     

Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting

ObjectivesTo examine the influence of enhanced expectancies on motor learning, we manipulated learners' expectancies by providing criteria for “success” that were relatively easy or difficult to meet.DesignExperimental design with two groups.MethodTwo groups of non-golfers practiced putting golf balls to a target from a distance of 150 cm. The target was surrounded by a large (14 cm diameter) and a small circle (7 cm diameter) during practice. The groups were informed that balls coming to rest in the large circle (large-circle group) or small circle (small-circle group), respectively, constituted a “good” trial. One day later, the circles were removed. Participants putted from the same distance (retention) and a greater distance (transfer: 180 cm).ResultsOn both retention and transfer tests, accuracy was greater for the large-circle compared with the small-circle group.ConclusionsEnhancing expectancies by providing a relatively “easy” performance criterion led to more effective learning.     

Culture and Social Distance: A Case Study of Methodological Cautions

Abstract

The authors presented, as a case study of methodological challenges in cross-cultural research, E. S. Bogardus's (1925) Social Distance Scale, which requires respondents to indicate the social distance between themselves and others. The meaningfulness of the scale depends on the assumption that respondents believe that the magnitude of social distance increases as one moves through the social categories of family member, friend, neighbor, coworker, and citizen. The authors tested this assumption for English Canadian, French Canadian, Jewish, Indian, Algerian, and Greek participants, all 1st-generation immigrants in Montreal. The participants rated their willingness to associate with members of each of the other ethnic groups in 5 social categories. The percentage of respondents in each sample whose data conformed to the prediction ranged from 63.7% to 98.0%, with English Canadian, French Canadian, and Jewish respondents providing responses most consistent with the predicted pattern. The Indian and Algerian respondents' data were the least consistent with the predicted pattern, especially when rating members of their own ethnic groups.     

Dissimilation,differential assimilation and social identity

Studied the behaviour of subjects in a ‘normalization’ experiment: when a consistent confederate adopts the subject's norms (adoption situation); when the consistent response of the confederate deviates from the subject's norm (distance situation). We had three conditions for each of these two modes of response: we manipulated the C's image (C was always similar to the subject), and the image of a reference population: C and S were both either very similar (C and S in the majority) or very dissimilar (C and S in the minority) to the population. Or there was no image manipulation. Sixty male subjects participated in this experiment: 10 subjects in each of the six experimental conditions. In two adoption conditions (no image, C and S in the majority) the subjects changed their responses when the confederate adopted their norm. Our hypothesis on the resistance to influence in one of the distance condition (C and S in the minority) was not verified. Thus we have shown that a phenomenon of differential dissimilation exists, but our previous results on differential assimilation are not replicated. These results are coherent with the social differentiation and originality theory which stresses the quest for social identity and distinctiveness by actors who do not ‘react’ but who, in certains situations, elaborate strategies.     

Expanding understandings of the body,food and exercise relationship in distance runners: A narrative approach

ObjectivesAdditional forms of theorizing and methodologies are warranted to expand understandings of the body, food and exercise relationship in physically active individuals.DesignA narrative approach grounded in social constructionism was used to explore the meaning-making process around this relationship in male and female distance runners.MethodNarratives around the body, food and exercise were elicited from nine recreational male and female distance runners (n = 5 males, 4 females). The sociocultural construction of meaning was explored through a thematic and dialogic/performance analysis of 17 in-depth interviews (2 interviews per person, with one exception) (see Riessman, 2008).ResultsFindings indicated that male and female runners drew upon one of two running narratives – ‘just do it’ and ‘just do it better’ – in constructing meanings around the body, food and exercise. Meanings shifted based upon the gendered narratives and cultural discourses. The specific narratives and meanings within them had implications for the runners' experiences and behaviors around their bodies, food and exercise in empowering/healthy and/or disempowering/unhealthy ways.ConclusionsThis study highlights the complexity of the body, food and exercise relationship in male and female distance runners, demonstrating that athletes' eating and exercising practices are socially and culturally formed in and through particular narratives and cultural discourse. These findings also add to the genre of cultural sport psychology research and a growing body of qualitative literature on disordered eating in the physical activity realm.     

Ethnicity and the stigma of disabilities

Abstract

Recent studies reveal significant differences in the attitudes held by people of various ethnic groups toward people with disabilities. We surveyed university students and community members on a scale of desired social distance from people with disabilities. Study 1 revealed that Asian-American participants were more likely to stigmatize and less likely to differentiate between individuals with physical and mental illness than were their African-American, Latin-American or European-American counterparts. Study 2 compared U.S. born with Asian born Asian-Americans and found that nativity was a useful predictor of attitudes toward people with disabilities. Asian born participants were more likely to stigmatize disabilities overall (except mental illness and old age) than U.S. born participants presumably because of the level of assimilation. These cultural differences may have health care and psychosocial implications for those who are disabled and for health care providers.     

“Foot-in-the-Mouth” Versus “Door-in-the-Face” Requests

Abstract

According to the attribution-value model, prejudice toward a group stems from 2 interrelated variables: attributions of controllability and cultural value. Thus, prejudice toward gay men and lesbians may stem from others' holding them responsible for their behaviors and perceiving negative cultural value regarding homosexuality. The author tested that model by using the issue of homosexuality. The participants were Turkish undergraduates who completed a homophobia scale and answered questions about the origins of homosexuality, cultural attitudes toward homosexuality, and their own gender and sexual preferences. In general, the participants were prejudiced against gay men and lesbians. As expected, attributions of controllability and negative cultural value regarding homosexuality operated jointly to explain 39% of the variation in homophobia. The participants who thought that homosexuality was controllable had more negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians than did those who thought that homosexuality was uncontrollable. The female participants were more tolerant of homosexuality than were the male participants.     

U.S. Patriotism and Ideologies of Group Dominance: A Tale of Asymmetry

Abstract

Using a random sample (N = 405) of White and Latino Americans from Los Angeles County, the authors explored whether there is an asymmetrical relationship between U.S. patriotism and two different dimensions of social dominance orientation: group antiegalitarianism and group dominance. Although there was no evidence of asymmetry in the relationship between U.S. patriotism and group antiegalitarianism, there was evidence of consistent asymmetry in the relationship between U.S. patriotism and group dominance. Among Whites (the dominant North American ethnic group) and depending on demographic variables such as age, education, income, and gender, the greater the respondents' tendency to subordinate “inferior groups,” the greater their level of U.S. patriotism. In contrast, among Latino Americans (the major subordinate group in Southern California), the opposite trend was found. Here, higher levels of group dominance orientation were associated with lower levels of U.S. patriotism. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Effect of Researchers' Focus on Interpretation of Diversity Data

Abstract

The tendency for intercultural researchers to focus primarily on cultural differences instead of both differences and similarities may reflect the emphasis of current statistical methodology toward cultural distance instead of cultural overlap. The authors proposed the cultural similarity index as a way of assessing the extent of communalities between 2 groups. The authors (a) analyzed research (T. Cox, S. Lobel, & P. L. McLeod, 1991; Y. F. Niemann & J. Dovidio, 1998) that placed a primary emphasis on differences, (b) presented alternative insights gained from a focus on similarities, and (c) explored the implications of a research focus on both cultural differences and similarities.     

Psychological Reactions of Biologists: A Cross-Section of Present-Day Biological Thought

Abstract

Differential outcomes and processes were examined between groups drawn from Hong Kong Chinese students and U.S. students. Predictions about group performance and processes were based on cross-cultural empirical literature, theoretical work on collectivist and individualist social behaviors, and group research. The participants engaged in decision-making tasks, first as individuals and then by consensus in groups of 5. A group-effectiveness measure was developed: A group was considered effective if the group as a whole outperformed a majority of its individual members. According to the results of a postexercise questionnaire, (a) Chinese ingroups had a higher percentage of effective groups than did Chinese minimal (acquaintance) groups, whereas U.S. minimal groups had a higher percentage of effective groups than did U.S. ingroups; (b) although the Chinese ingroups' deliberation times were nearly 3 times longer than those of the U.S. ingroups, their performance accuracy was not superior to that of the U.S. groups; and (c) the Chinese participants were more concerned than the U.S. participants about an appropriate image and perceived their group discussions as more intense and conflict ridden than the U.S. participants did.     

Measurement equivalence of the German Job Satisfaction Survey used in a multinational organization: implications of Schwartz's culture model

The authors tested measurement equivalence of the German Job Satisfaction Survey (GJSS) using structural equation modeling methodology. Employees from 18 countries and areas provided data on 5 job satisfaction facets. The effects of language and culture on measurement equivalence were examined. A cultural distance hypothesis, based on S. H. Schwartz's (1999) theory, was tested with 4 cultural groups: West Europe, English speaking, Latin America, and Far East. Findings indicated the robustness of the GJSS in terms of measurement equivalence across countries. The survey maintained high transportability across countries speaking the same language and countries sharing similar cultural backgrounds. Consistent with Schwartz's model, a cultural distance effect on scale transportability among scales used in maximally dissimilar cultures was detected. Scales used in the West Europe group showed greater equivalence to scales used in the English-speaking and Latin America groups than scales used in the Far East group.     

The family relationships of humor-oriented adolescents1

It was hypothesized that humor-oriented people emerge from a pattern of distance in family relationships. Using Moos's (1974) Family Environment Scale (FES) and Kuethe's (1962) figure-placement technique, the family experience of 88 Boy Scouts was assessed. Through a peer nomination technique nonhumor-oriented, middle, and humor-oriented groups were formed. As predicted, the humor-oriented group exhibited lower cohesion scores (p <.01) and greater conflict scores (p <.10) on the FES and greater distance from father in the figure placement (p <.05). A subgroup of humor-oriented boys receiving high ratings for funniness displayed similar though somewhat more general patterns of family distance. Humor orientation was modestly associated with popularity but not with age, birth order, or number of siblings. A family-distance model of humor orientation was proposed which views humor as an attempt to relate from a distance. This framework appears to be consistent with a variety of earlier findings pertaining to the psychology of humor.     

The role of a positive model,a frustrating situation and aggressive context on imitation

Thirty-two groups of four naive Ss and one accomplice participated in this 2 × 2 × 2 experiment designed to test conditions facilitating imitation of a competent model played by the accomplice. It was assumed that the psychological distance between the competent model and the Ss would be lessened so that imitation would increase: 1. if the model was friendly rather than hostile, 2. if the situation was non-frustrating rather than frustrating, and 3. if aggression was permitted rather than forbidden. Imitation was measured by the Ss' reproduction of the model's two mannerisms, and was found to be significantly influenced in the predicted way by the three variables. However, the freedom to aggress did not lessen psychological distance. Alternative explanations are provided for these results.     

A subculture of mental toughness in an Australian Football League club

ObjectiveThe current study aimed to provide a subcultural analysis of mental toughness in a high-performance context in sport.DesignUsing Schein's (1990) framework of organisational culture, an exploratory qualitative analysis, employing focus group and individual interviews, was used to investigate mental toughness in an Australian Football League club.MethodNine senior coaches and players participated in focus group and individual interviews. Photo elicitation was used as a method to capture mental toughness through the identification of prominent club artefacts. Participants were considered to have significant subcultural knowledge of their football club and were willing to describe personal experiences and perceptions of mental toughness through this cultural lens. Deductive and inductive analyses were conducted to capture the core themes of mental toughness across the disparate levels of Schein's organisational framework.ResultsMental toughness was found to be a socially derived term marked by unrelenting standards and sacrificial displays. These acts were underpinned by subcultural values emphasising a desire for constant improvement, a team first ethos, relentless effort, and the maintenance of an infallible image. At its core, mental toughness was assumed to be an internal concept, epitomised an idealised form of masculinity, elitist values, and was rhetorically depicted through metaphors of war.ConclusionsIt may be difficult to understand mental toughness without giving attention to the contextual norms related to the term. Appreciating how people promote, instil, and internalise prized ideals coveted as mental toughness could be intriguing for future research in sport psychology.     

The Relationships Among Differing Loss Experiences,Adjustment, Beliefs,and Coping

Abstract

Losses are often equated for conceptual purposes, and it is often assumed that different types of losses result in similar grief reactions and exert similar effects on cognitive structures and coping patterns. This article examines the expectancies, beliefs, coping patterns, and psychological adjustment associated with loss due to death, parental. divorce, or illness and disability in a college student population. Loss groups did not differ from each other or from a no-loss group on cognitive variables, coping, or psychological adjustment. In instances in which associations between the cognitive measures and either coping or adjustment were indicated, the typical pattern was for loss groups to differ from the no-loss condition but not from each other.     

Creativity,biology, and culture: Further comments on evolution of the creative mind

Abstract:

Lumsden and Findlay (1988) presented a sociobiological model concerned with the ontogeny of the creative act and its potential influences on geneculture coevolution. In reviewing the content and implications of this model, we found that it is consistent with certain aspects of the creative process, and that it suggests several promising new research avenues. When the ongoing debate concerning biological and cultural determinants of human behavior was considered, however, we came to the conclusion that biologically based models must be applied cautiously, particularly as they pertain to cultural innovation.     

The effects of distance between interactants and subject anxiety on conjugate lateral eye movements

Ehrlichman and Weinberger (1978, Psychological Bulletin 85, 1080-1101) have suggested that the distance between participants during face-to-face interviewing may be a significant determinant of directional patterns of conjugate lateral eye movements (CLEMS). As predicted, at the longer, social distance CLEMS were dependent on the verbal or spatial nature of questions; when interactants were at a closer, personal distance CLEMS became more consistent in direction, regardless of problem type. Distance manipulation also differentially altered CLEM patterns for the two sexes.     

Individual and Group Meaning: Exploring the Reciprocal Relation

Abstract

Group construct systems were defined through application of a group construct grid that elicited types of groups in which an individual had participated or closely observed. The Group Grid was administered at the beginning and the end of a 4-month graduate class. The meanings of groups to participants were interpreted by examining changes in Group Grids over time and in relation to high and low levels of group performance. The meaning of individuals to the group was assessed by peer evaluations given at the end of the project. High and low levels of peer evaluation were then predicted by an individual's Group Grid measures. The most consistent findings were that greater variation in application regarding types of groups and characteristics about groups showed strong associations with both high levels of group performance and high levels of peer evaluation. Suggestions are given for future research     

Cultural Factors in the Recall of a Witnessed Event

Can cultural factors influence testimony? To explore this hypothesis, groups of Spanish and English students (n = 48 per group) observed successively two films showing events specific to Spain (a romeria) and England (a village fete) before giving free recall and a verbal recognition test that contained lures consistent and inconsistent with cultural expectations. In addition, half the subjects were instructed to adopt the role of an observer while the remainder played the role of a participant. Significant interactions between cultural background and type of event reported were found for both recall and recognition. Contrary to expectation (i) recall accuracy was greater for the event that was not from the subject's own country (ii) recall errors were greater for the event from the subject's own country. In line with expectation, recognition accuracy was high for the event from the subject's own country. Results are discussed in terms of the operation of schemabased theories of recall and Johnson's reality-monitoring approach. The practical implications of the current findings for the interviewing of witnesses are briefly discussed.