Using developmental principles to assist preschoolers in developing numeracy and literacy

In a yoked control design, 4-yr.-olds (N = 39) in a Head Start program played numerous structured games involving either the oddity principle or letter identification and letter sounds. The children's mean age was 53.2 mo.; SD = 4.1 mo. Three were Middle Eastern, 14 were Latino, 7 were East African, and 15 were African American. Children showed better mastery of oddity after playing games directed at this concept, and numeracy scores on the Woodcock-Johnson III were better for children who had played this type of game. Woodcock-Johnson III Letter-Word scores for children who had played the oddity and seriation or letter games were equivalent. These results are consistent with other research indicating that the understanding of oddity relations may be a key transitional thinking which supports quantitative and verbal development at the preschool-kindergarten interface. The standardized test scores indicate that guided play directed at this aspect of cognitive growth or more narrowly directed at early literacy can produce equivalent knowledge of letters.     

Clinical significance and correlates of disruptive behavior in environmentally at-risk preschoolers

Examines the clinical significance and correlates of disruptive behavior disorder symptoms (DBDSX) in preschoolers. Participants were 129 predominantly minority preschoolers (2 1/2 to 5 1/2) residing in low-income environments, half of whom were clinic-referred for disruptive behavior. Children with higher levels of DBDSX were more impaired in parent-child, preschool and clinic contexts. Correlates of DBDSX included both prenatal and infancy risks (low soothability as infants, prenatal exposure to cigarettes) and concurrent parenting factors (harshness, low levels of behavioral responsiveness, and parenting stress). In general, the clinical and risk profile of DBDSX in preschoolers at environmental risk appears to be similar to that of older children. Based on the results of this study, etiologic and prevention research on disruptive behavior disorders should begin in the first few years of life.     

Applying person-centred principles to teaching large classes

An analysis was carried out of final-year undergraduate responses to innovations in a seminar class of 54 students to determine whether positive learning outcomes in large classes can be made possible by increasing the range of work in which students are involved. Relatively straightforward adjustments to approach and style produced positive learning outcomes, enabling students to acquire enthusiastically and effectively not only subject knowledge, but also a range of transferable skills giving them better preparation for the world of work. While course management of this kind requires a redirection of the time and effort of the lecturer, and therefore raises issues of professional development needs, it is not subject-specific and should be readily transferable.     

Assessment of preschoolers at-risk with the WPPSI--R and the Stanford-Binet L-M.

The purpose of this study was to provide data on the validity of using the WPPSI--R with 16 preschoolers who had been referred for psychological assessment. A comparison of the preschoolers' performance on the WPPSI--R and the Stanford-Binet L-M was made. Children ranged in age from 3-0 to 6-0 years, with a mean age of 4-5 yr. The correlations between WPPSI--R and Stanford-Binet L-M scores were strong; WPPSI--R Verbal IQ and Stanford-Binet L-M IQ, r = .85; WPPSI--R Performance IQ and Stanford-Binet L-M IQ, r = .75, and WPPSI--R Full Scale IQ and Stanford-Binet L-M IQ, r = .82. For this very small sample of children whose mean IQ was significantly below average, the WPPSI--R appeared to assess validly their current intellectual functioning. Attention should be given concurrent and predictive validity as well as the efficiency of using the WPPSI--R with other and larger samples of referred children.     

Milestones in the development of infant numeracy

This article deals with the development of numeracy among young children of the four to seven year age group. The research investigation described had two aims: to see how early numeracy develops in children of different ages; and to see whether there are fixed points which might serve as milestones in the development of infant numeracy. The results of this investigation involving 96 children indicate a strong development of numeracy skills during this period. With reference to the literature, it is also shown that certain items of a test previously developed for this purpose may be taken as core items that do indeed represent milestones in the development of infant numeracy.     

Exposure to media and theory-of-mind development in preschoolers

Exposure to different forms of narrative media may influence children's development of theory-of-mind. Because engagement with fictional narratives provides one with information about the social world, and possibly draws upon theory-of-mind processes during comprehension, exposure to storybooks, movies, and television may influence theory-of-mind development. We examined 4–6 year-olds’ inferred exposure to children's literature, television, and film, using an objective measure that controls for socially desirable responding. Theory-of-mind was assessed using a battery of five tasks. Controlling for age, gender, vocabulary, and parental income, inferred exposure to children's storybooks predicted theory-of-mind abilities. Inferred exposure to children's movies also predicted theory-of-mind development, but inferred exposure to children's television did not.     

Applying developmental previewing to the principles of family therapy

This paper discusses the application of principles of infant psychiatry to the diagnosis and treatment of multigenerational family conflict. Using a technique referred to as previewing, the therapist can focus on the interpersonal meaning that the infant's development precipitates in the family and determine how the parents' relationships with the infant replicate their relationships with their own families of origin. The therapist may then use these insights for overcoming conflict and for acclimating parents to new developmental skills in an optimal manner. Specific suggestions for how parents may promote more adaptive patterns of interaction with the infant using previewing are offered.     

Applying the principles and techniques of solution-focused therapy to career counselling

Career counselling aims to help clients become more effective agents in solving problems in their vocational aspects of life. To achieve this goal, theorists and practitioners are called upon to form useful helping approaches that can help clients in a more efficient and effective manner. This article proposes an alternative model toward this end by considering and adopting principles and techniques from the solution-focused therapy in career counselling practice. After a very brief introduction of the basic features of the solution-focused counselling, the paper reviews some key theoretical principles of the solution-focused therapy, and connects these principles to career counselling context. It then illustrates several solution-focused counselling techniques that are particularly applicable to career counselling intervention.     

Early literacy and early numeracy: the value of including early literacy skills in the prediction of numeracy development

The purpose of this study was to examine whether early literacy skills uniquely predict early numeracy skills development. During the first year of the study, 69 3- to 5-year-old preschoolers were assessed on the Preschool Early Numeracy Skills (PENS) test and the Test of Preschool Early Literacy Skills (TOPEL). Participants were assessed again a year later on the PENS test and on the Applied Problems and Calculation subtests of the Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Three mixed effect regressions were conducted using Time 2 PENS, Applied Problems, and Calculation as the dependent variables. Print Knowledge and Vocabulary accounted for unique variance in the prediction of Time 2 numeracy scores. Phonological Awareness did not uniquely predict any of the mathematics domains. The findings of this study identify an important link between early literacy and early numeracy development.     

The development of future-oriented prudence and altruism in preschoolers

This research tested the hypothesis that prudence and altruism, in situations involving future desires, follow a similar developmental course between the ages of 3 and 5 years. Using a modified delay of gratification paradigm, 3- to 5-year-olds were tested on their ability to forgo a current opportunity to obtain some stickers in order to gratify their own future desires—or the current or future desires of a research assistant. Results showed that in choices involving current desires, altruistic behavior was unrelated to age. However, prudence and altruism involving future situations were correlated with one another and with age. Children under 4 years of age demonstrated significantly less future-oriented prudence than the older children (F(1,49) = 15.75; p < .001) and significantly less altruism involving future situations (F(1,49) = 33.24; p < .001). The data for the 3-year-olds, but not for the older children, also showed age-partialled correlations between the two future-oriented choice situations. These results suggest that between 3 and 4 years, children acquire the ability to deal with future-oriented situations through the development of some common mechanism which affects both future-oriented prudence and altruism.     

Applying market principles to the delivery of careers guidance services: A critical review

Market principles can be applied to careers guidance services through the concept of guidance as market-maker or through the concept of a market in guidance. The notion of a market in guidance can take the form of a real market or of a quasi-market. A quasi-market can take the form of contracts or of vouchers. These three sets of options are explored in relation to current policy developments in the careers guidance field.     

Further development of measures of early math performance for preschoolers

The purpose of this study was to examine the progress monitoring and screening accuracy for a set of curriculum-based measures (CBM) of early mathematics skills. Measures included counting objects, selecting numbers, naming numbers, counting, and visual discrimination. Measures were designed to be administered with preschoolers in a short period of time using a developmentally appropriate format, and to constitute minimal disruption to the classroom routine. Previous research indicated that each of these measures produced scores with acceptable consistency across alternate forms on consecutive days. Scores yielded on the experimental probes correlated moderately, in most cases, with two commonly used standardized measures (i.e., the Brigance Screens and TEMA-2). Performance on the probes also correlated with teacher rankings and ratings of child performance. In the present study, data were collected in two phases. In the first phase, a cohort of children were administered the early math measures in spring of preschool and were followed into winter of kindergarten where they were administered kindergarten CBM probes to examine the degree to which performance in preschool (as measured by the early math probes) could predict performance on similar tasks in kindergarten. Second, risk criteria were examined and compared to identification by the Brigance Screens. These analyses provided data about the potential accuracy of the probes for screening. In the second phase, sensitivity of the probes to performance differences was examined by comparing mean performance on the probes of preschoolers and kindergartners. The lowest-performing children were provided with seven intervention sessions to examine the degree to which probes could detect growth resulting from intervention. Directions for future research and implications for practice are discussed.     

Mechanisms linking height to early child development among infants and preschoolers in rural India

Stunting has been negatively associated with children's development. We examined the range of height by testing hypotheses: (a) height is positively associated with children's development, with associations moderated by inflammation and (b) home environments characterized by nurturance and early learning opportunities is positively associated with children's development over time and attenuate associations with height. Data included 513 infants (mean age 8.6 months) and 316 preschoolers (mean age 36.6 months) in rural India from a randomized controlled trial of multiple micronutrient powders (MNPs). Measures included height (height‐for‐age z‐scores based on WHO standards), inflammation (C‐reactive protein concentration >5 mg/L), nurturance (HOME Inventory), child development (Mullens Scales of Early Learning), and inhibitory control (preschoolers). Linear mixed effects models accounting for repeated measures, clustering, and confounders were used to assess associations between height and child development over time (infants: enrollment, 6 and 12 months; preschoolers: enrollment and 8 months). Moderating effects of inflammation and nurturance were tested with interaction terms. Among infants and preschoolers, height and nurturance were positively associated with all domains of child development over time, with the exception of inhibitory control. Among preschoolers, in the presence of inflammation, height was not associated with child development. Among infants, but not preschoolers, a nurturant home environment attenuated significant associations between height with fine motor and receptive language development. The mechanisms associated with children's development over time are multifactorial and include direct and indirect associations among nutrition, health, and the home environment, as supported by the Nurturing Care Framework.     

Cognitive, perceptual, and personal-social development of prematurely born preschoolers

This study was designed to determine possible differences in the cognitive, perceptual, and personal-social development of prematurely and maturely born 3-yr.-olds which might foreshadow later learning problems. The subjects were 40 prematurely born graduates of a neonatal intensive care unit (birth weight less than 2,500 gm, less than 37 wk. gestation) matched on the pair-level with full-term controls on sex, race, post-conceptual age, and socioeconomic background. All subjects were singletons and parity was matched at the group level. No differences were found between the groups on tests of higher mental processes including the General Cognitive, Verbal, Quantitative, and Memory Scales of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, and researcher-devised measures of problem-solving competence. No differences in parental reports of personal-social development were noted. Prematures did not perform as well as controls on perceptual performance tasks, and this difference was interpreted as reflecting relatively impaired visual-motor coordination.     

Applying cognitive training to target executive functions during early development

Developmental psychopathology is increasingly recognizing the importance of distinguishing causal processes (i.e., the mechanisms that cause a disease) from developmental outcomes (i.e., the symptoms of the disorder as it is eventually diagnosed). Targeting causal processes early in disordered development may be more effective than waiting until outcomes are established and then trying to reverse the pathogenic process. In this review, I evaluate evidence suggesting that neural and behavioral plasticity may be greatest at very early stages of development. I also describe correlational evidence suggesting that, across a number of conditions, early emerging individual differences in attentional control and working memory may play a role in mediating later-developing differences in academic and other forms of learning. I review the currently small number of studies that applied direct and indirect cognitive training targeted at young individuals and discuss methodological challenges associated with targeting this age group. I also discuss a number of ways in which early, targeted cognitive training may be used to help us understand the developmental mechanisms subserving typical and atypical cognitive development.     

With a little help from my friends: maternal social support,via parenting,promotes willingness to share in preschoolers born to young mothers

Little is known about prosocial behaviours in children of young mothers. This longitudinal study involved 44 young mother (age <20 years at birth of first child) families and 44 older mother families, who were carefully matched for child age and gender, as well as for family structure (number of children, lone‐parent status) and socio‐economic background (maternal education, head‐of‐household unemployment, low family income). At the first time‐point (M child age = 2.45 years), mothers listed family members or friends who provided practical and/or emotional support; videos of mother–child interaction in play and tidy‐up were coded for positive and negative parenting. Two years later (M child age = 4.32 years), children's prosocial behaviours were assessed via (i) an experimental task of willingness to share and (ii) video‐based ratings of sharing and helping during dyadic play with friends. T‐tests showed few group differences in prosocial behaviours. Regression analyses showed that, for young mother families only, reduced negative parenting mediated associations between support from friends and preschoolers' willingness to share. Support from friends, via parenting, may promote willingness to share in children born to young mother families. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Basic principles of optical imaging and application to the study of infant development

New optical methods of studying the infant brain have been developed over the last 20 years. These techniques make use of a window of transparency of biological tissue to near infrared light. Using spectrophotometry new insights have been gained into mechanisms of brain damage in newborn infants undergoing intensive care, and non‐invasive functional activation studies have been pioneered in awake infants. Recently topographic mapping of activated cortex has become possible, and preliminary tomographic images of regional oxygenation in infants have been constructed. This is a rapidly changing field which offers exciting possibilities for studying both normal and abnormal child development.     

The development of automatic numerosity processing in preschoolers: evidence for numerosity-perceptual interference

Three experiments examined developmental changes in the automatic processing of numerosity and perceptual information using a nonsymbolic numerical Stroop paradigm. In Experiments 1 and 2 (E1 and E2), 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds had to compare the numerosities or the total filled areas of collections of dots (E1) or bars (E2) varying along both dimensions. Experiment 3 replicated E2's results in 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds. Results demonstrated the existence of reciprocal influences between numerical and perceptual information beginning at age 3. Moreover, the irrelevant perceptual influences remained stable throughout development, whereas the sensitivity to irrelevant numerical cues tended to increase with age despite children's growing inhibition capacities. No significant correlation could be found between these developmental changes and the acquisition of counting knowledge.