The meaning of ‘life’ and other abstract words: Insights from neuropsychology

There are a number of long‐standing theories on how the cognitive processing of abstract words, like ‘life’, differs from that of concrete words, like ‘knife’. This review considers current perspectives on this debate, focusing particularly on insights obtained from patients with language disorders and integrating these with evidence from functional neuroimaging studies. The evidence supports three distinct and mutually compatible hypotheses. (1) Concrete and abstract words differ in their representational substrates, with concrete words depending particularly on sensory experiences and abstract words on linguistic, emotional, and magnitude‐based information. Differential dependence on visual versus verbal experience is supported by the evidence for graded specialization in the anterior temporal lobes for concrete versus abstract words. In addition, concrete words have richer representations, in line with better processing of these words in most aphasic patients and, in particular, patients with semantic dementia. (2) Abstract words place greater demands on executive regulation processes because they have variable meanings that change with context. This theory explains abstract word impairments in patients with semantic‐executive deficits and is supported by neuroimaging studies showing greater response to abstract words in inferior prefrontal cortex. (3) The relationships between concrete words are governed primarily by conceptual similarity, while those of abstract words depend on association to a greater degree. This theory, based primarily on interference and priming effects in aphasic patients, is the most recent to emerge and the least well understood. I present analyses indicating that patterns of lexical co‐occurrence may be important in understanding these effects.     

Divergent effects of healthy ageing on semantic knowledge and control: Evidence from novel comparisons with semantically impaired patients

Effective use of semantic knowledge requires a set of conceptual representations and control processes which ensure that currently relevant aspects of this knowledge are retrieved and selected. It is well-established that levels of semantic knowledge increase across the lifespan. However, the effects of ageing on semantic control processes have not been assessed. I addressed this issue by comparing the performance profiles of young and older people on a verbal comprehension test. Two sets of variables were used to predict accuracy and RT in each group: (1) the psycholinguistic properties of words probed in each trial and (2) the performance on each trial by two groups of semantically impaired neuropsychological patients. Young people demonstrated poor performance for low-frequency and abstract words, suggesting that they had difficulty processing words with intrinsically weak semantic representations. Indeed, performance in this group was strongly predicted by the performance of patients with semantic dementia, who suffer from degradation of semantic knowledge. In contrast, older adults performed poorly on trials where the target semantic relationship was weak and distractor relationships strong – conditions which require high levels of controlled processing. Their performance was not predicted by the performance of semantic dementia patients, but was predicted by the performance of patients with semantic control deficits. These findings indicate that the effects of ageing on semantic cognition are more complex than has previously been assumed. While older people have larger stores of knowledge than young people, they appear to be less skilled at exercising control over the activation of this knowledge.     

图词干扰范式下的语义效应

图-词干扰范式下存在着语义干扰效应（semanticinterferenceeffects,SIE）。研究发现,在图-词干扰范式下,语义干扰词对图片命名或者起干扰作用,或者起促进作用。产生这两种截然不同的语义效应的机制很复杂。主要有两种假说：⑴词汇选择竞争说：认为当干扰词和目标图画有语义关联时,干扰词和目标图画所对应的概念表征相互激活,从而造成语义干扰,词汇节点要通过竞争才能得到选择。⑵相对范畴水平说：认为决定语义效应及效应大小的关键因素是干扰词和目标词之间的范畴水平,如果干扰词和目标图画处在同一范畴的相同水平,则产生语义干扰;如果干扰词和目标图画处在同一范畴的不同水平,则产生语义促进。文章回顾了已有的研究及各种假说的争论,并对未来研究进行了展望     

义符启动范式下义符的语义和语法激活的时间进程

采用义符启动范式,探讨义符的语义、语法信息的激活进程。结果表明,就义符总体而言,义符的语义激活从启动早期一直持续到启动晚期,义符的语法信息未见有激活。然而,对不成字义符和成字义符分析发现,不成字义符和成字义符的语义、语法激活存在着差异。不成字义符的语义激活只在启动中期出现,语法信息则未见有激活;成字义符的语义信息一直处于激活状态,并且在启动晚期,语法信息也得到了激活。义符的语义、语法信息的激活进程和顺序是由义符的功能决定的。     

义符熟悉性对低频形声字词汇通达的影响

采用启动词汇判断范式, 探讨义符熟悉性对低频形声字词汇通达的影响。结果表明, 义符加工与整字加工存在动态的交互作用。在加工早期, 低频形声字的整字语义并未得到激活, 但此时高熟悉义符出现了语义启动, 低熟悉义符的启动作用不明显。在加工晚期, 低频形声字的整字语义得到了激活, 高、低熟悉的义符均出现了语义激活, 但整字通达与义符通达之间存在竞争。在整字语义通达之后, 义符的词形信息也会激活。整个研究表明, 义符熟悉性和整字频率是影响词汇加工的重要因素, 不仅影响对整字语义通达的速度, 也影响亚词汇成分的加工。根据研究的结果, 构建了义符在词汇通达中的作用的模型。     

阿尔兹海默病患者中的范畴特异性语义记忆损伤

脑损伤可导致范畴特异性语义损伤, 即某一范畴的语义记忆选择性损伤或损伤更严重。阿尔兹海默病患者中的范畴特异性语义损伤可能来自不同范畴之间在熟悉度、词频、获得年龄、视觉复杂度、语义距离、加工要求以及所涉及的主要语义特征等方面的差别。然而, 有无生命范畴本身是否也是一个来源, 尚不清楚。进一步的研究不仅需要整合范畴途径和特征途径, 并区分语义记忆的存储和通达, 而且需要考查疾病严重程度如何影响语义记忆损伤模式。     

汉语及物动词词典中宾语信息的表征

该研究利用认知行为反应时方法,操作汉语及物动词与宾语之间的搭配关系,对汉语及物动词词典中宾语信息的表征情况进行了考察。结果发现,随着动词与宾语搭配的语义违反程度的增大,反应时增加。这表明,汉语及物动词词典中存在比较精确的宾语信息,其宾语信息是以语义特征来表征的。     

义符熟悉性对高频形声字词汇通达的影响

采用启动词汇判断范式,考察义符熟悉性对高频汉字形声字认知的影响。结果表明,义符加工与整字加工存在动态的交互作用。在加工早期,高频汉字形声字的整字语义已经激活,但此时义符的语义并未激活。高熟悉性义符的词形启动比低熟悉性义符早。随着SOA增长,高、低熟悉性义符的语义都出现激活。到了加工晚期,汉字形声字整字的语义激活仍然显著,但义符的语义激活消失,表明字词认知的整合过程已经完成。这一结果支持汉字认知中整字加工和部件加工相结合的观点     

长时语义记忆对阈下语义启动效应的影响

本文通过检测启动刺激的词频对阈下启动效应的影响,探讨了长时语义记忆在阈下语义启动中的作用。结果表明,对阈下启动刺激的感受性d′上,词频和练习的交互作用显著(p<0.05),高频刺激即使没有练习过的启动刺激也会产生启动效应,而对低频刺激只有练习过的启动刺激才会产生启动效应,说明长时语义记忆是影响阈下启动效应的重要因素之一。     

词汇歧义消解的脑机制

词汇歧义是语言歧义的一种, 词汇歧义消解受到相对意义频率和语境的影响。半视野研究发现大脑两半球都能在词汇歧义消解过程中根据语境信息选择性地激活歧义词的恰当意义、抑制不恰当意义, 其中左半球的语义选择功能更强; 脑损伤研究发现大脑左、右半球损伤都会导致词汇歧义消解中语义选择障碍, 词汇歧义消解需要大脑两半球的联合作用; 神经成像研究进一步发现额叶与颞叶共同支持词汇歧义消解, 歧义词的恰当意义的选择是由额下回执行的, 语义整合加工是由颞叶负责的。     

Naming digits in a semantic blocking paradigm

It is widely agreed that word numerals are processed similar to other words, and, thus, they can be named without semantic mediation. However, there is no consensus about Arabic digits. Although digits seem to have a preferential link to magnitude representation, there is some evidence indicating a possible asemantic route to access phonological information. In the present study, we used a semantic blocking paradigm to explore this question. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to name digits and pictures or numeral words and name of objects in a semantic blocked context and in a mixed context. For both types of numerical notation we found facilitation in the blocked condition relative to the mixed condition. In Experiment 2, participants named two-digit numbers in a blocked condition (short numerical distance) or in a mixed condition (large numerical distance). Again, facilitation was found for the blocked condition relative to the mixed condition. This pattern of results seems to indicate that Arabic digits, like number words, might be named through an asemantic route.     

语义认知的习得、发展和老化及其神经机制

作为语言系统的重要组成部分, 探究语义认知发展机制及其神经机理对揭示人类语言发展、认知机制有着重要意义。以语义认知能力的习得、发展、老化认知机制为主线, 在系统阐释词汇-语义系统的习得、语义认知能力和策略发展的基础上, 进一步探讨了语义认知老化的认知机制及其神经机理。最后, 围绕儿童和成人的语义认知差异、句法和语义认知老化的差异、语义认知老化的影响因素等问题上进行了思考和展望。     

二、三和五年级儿童对形旁语义的加工

结合启动范式和汉字判断任务,通过操纵目标字语义透明度,在汉字阅读过程探查了二、三、五年级儿童对形旁语义的加工。采用 3×2×2 混合实验设计,自变量为被试类型（小学二、三、五年级儿童）、启动字类型（字形相关 vs. 无关）和目标字类型（透明字 vs. 模糊字）。结果发现启动字类型、目标字类型和年级三者交互作用显著。随后分析在三五年级儿童中发现了显著的独立于字形的形旁语义启动效应,启动字中的共享形旁对模糊字的识别产生了更大的抑制作用,而在二年级儿童中并没有发现这种效应。说明形旁语义在儿童的心理词典中存在独立表征,可以被激活并促进儿童对汉字的识别,但是需要儿童的阅读理解能力发展到一定程度。     

To what extent does typicality boost semantic priming effects between members of their categories?

Atypical items of their semantic category yield more generalisation than their typical members when relearning in connectionist networks (Plaut, D. C. (1996). Relearning after damage in connectionist networks: toward a theory of rehabilitation. Brain and Language, 52(1), 25–82) and in empirical studies (Kiran, S., & Thompson, C. K. (2003). The role of semantic complexity in treatment of naming deficits: Training semantic categories in fluent aphasia by controlling exemplar typicality. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(4), 773–787). It seems therefore that atypical words provide more information about the overall structure of the semantic category due to their specific and shared features. In this view, atypical primes could strongly facilitate the processing of targets compared to typical primes, because typical primes contain little information about the variation between members within a category. In contrast, three semantic priming experiments in visual word recognition showed an advantage with the typical context, but not with the atypical one. These findings were observed in a variety of tasks, including lexical decision, categorisation and semantic judgment. Our results do not support the findings about generalisation in relearning and suggest that typicality effects in semantic priming mostly come from the activation of representative features of categories.     

语义范畴特异性损伤的理论研究进展

在对人类认知机制的研究中,以患者为研究对象是最近兴起的一种重要的认知神经科学手段.期间,人们发现有些脑损伤患者具有语义范畴特异性损伤现象,即表现出对个别语义范畴的认知能力相对较弱.这一奇特现象的发现,为研究人类的语义记忆系统的结构和功能开辟了一个全新的领域.该文着重介绍了这一现象及其引发的4种新的语义记忆理论,从而对人类的语义记忆作出重新审视.     

Differential reinforcement with and without blocking as treatment for elopement

Blocking is a frequent component of treatments for elopement. Unfortunately, blocking may not always be feasible because elopement often occurs when supervision is low or the behavior cannot be prevented. The present study evaluated the use of blocking in the treatment of elopement by using differential reinforcement of other behavior with and without blocking. In this case, results suggested that blocking may be an essential component for differential reinforcement-based treatments of elopement.     

An analysis of response-blocking parameters in the prevention of pica

We manipulated two parameters of response blocking to reduce pica: (a) the criteria for initiating the procedure (either earlier or later in the response chain) and (b) the distance from which the procedure was initiated. Results suggested that response blocking may be effective only when implemented early in the chain and with near-perfect consistency. Further, additional treatment components may be required to eliminate all pica attempts.     

图画口语命名中的语义效应

图画口语命名包括了概念准备、词条选择、音韵编码和发音等加工阶段, 是口语产生研究中经典的实验任务。文章首先简要介绍了两类言语产生的基础理论, 然后介绍了不同研究范式下的语义抑制效应与语义促进效应。在此基础上总结了影响语义效应的各种因素, 并重点介绍了竞争说、动态词汇网络假说、反应一致说、语义选择说以及反应排除说。最后基于已有的研究成果与研究现状指出了下一步的研究方向。     

The attribute priming effect in patients with Alzheimer's disease

Experiments with semantic priming (SP) paradigms have documented early hypopriming in patients with AD when concepts are used as primes and attribute concept features as targets, suggesting that concept attributes are vulnerable to damage very early in the disease course. The aims of this study were to confirm early priming reduction in the attribute condition in patients with AD and to determine which of several semantic indexes (such as the level of distinctiveness, correlation or feature dominance of concept features) best predicts the priming effect size in AD. We administered an SP attribute condition paradigm to 20 mildly demented patients with AD and to 10 NCs. We used concept–attribute pairs for which normative data of semantic indexes relative to both concept primes (i.e., number, type, mean level of dominance, distinctiveness and correlation of features constituting the concepts) and target features (i.e., level of feature dominance, correlation and distinctiveness) were available. Results showed that compared to NCs, the AD group obtained very reduced priming facilitation. Furthermore, the item regression analyses showed that the priming decrement in the AD group was predicted by the feature dominance of the target in the related pairs; that is, the lower the target feature dominance, the lower the priming effect elicited. These results confirmed hypopriming in the attribute condition from the very early phase of AD and support the view that attributes which are more salient for the identification of a given concept are also those most resistant to semantic memory degradation in AD pathology.     

语义空间的研究方法

对于语义空间的研究一直是认知心理学研究的一个热点。由于对词汇语义系统的不同观点,科学家们试图从不同的角度采用不同的方法来进行研究。目前,有代表性的语义空间研究方法主要有两种:潜在语义分析(LSA)和语言的多维空间类比(HAL)。潜在语义分析是指利用奇异值分解的方法来探索文章中潜在的语义关系的方法;语言的多维空间类比则是利用多维量表(MDS)的方法来提取语义信息。