The hawk/goose story: the classical ethological experiments of Lorenz and Tinbergen, revisited

We present a historical account of the story behind the famous hawk/goose experiments of Lorenz and Tinbergen in a wider context of cognitive ethology. We discuss their significance, for ethological experimentation in general, and specifically for understanding innate constraints on cognition. As examples of the continuing significance of the hawk/goose paradigm of selective habituation, we discuss its relation to "exposure therapy" of human phobias and the use of hawk silhouettes as deterrents for songbirds. Finally we rephrase Uexküll's thesis of taxon-specific worlds ("Umwelten") as a "Theory of World."     

Replies to Niko Kolodny,Debra Satz,and Steven Wall

Philosophical Studies -     

Konrad Raiser: The Challenge of Transformation

This article discusses the role played by Konrad Raiser in the World Council of Churches (WCC), from 1969, when he joined the staff as a study secretary, to his time as general secretary from 1993 to 2003, and especially his role in the conciliar process for Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation. As general secretary, Raiser played a key role in supporting and encouraging the churches' witness for peace and nonviolence, strengthening the fellowship of churches within the WCC through the process to develop a “Common Understanding and Vision” and the Special Commission on Orthodox Participation in the WCC.     

Patterns of exploratory behavior in the spiny mouse, Acomys cahirinus

The present paper reports an investigation of patterns of exploratory behavior shown by laboratory-bred Spiny Mice (Acomys cahirinus) when given access to a large, novel arena. The aim was to test hypotheses suggested by our previous work with this species. Previous experiments in which the exploratory behavior of Acomys was compared with that of Mus had suggested that each species had a characteristic pattern of emergence and exploration. The present experiment addressed the question of whether the exploratory patterns of Acomys could be predicted from patterns of emergence as suggested by earlier experiments. Data are presented which indicate that the exploratory behavior of Acomys in a large, novel arena is reasonably predictable. The data presented include measures of the animal's responses to different stimuli within the novel environment, including novel, conspicuous objects, food sources, and the holding cage to which the animal could return. In addition, the patterns of movement through different areas of the environment were recorded in relation to the behavior of the animal when it was first given access to the arena. The data indicate that there are two types of strategy, or patterns, by which Acomys begin to explore a novel environment. The first type consists of a delayed emergence into the arena, followed by brief excursions into the area immediately adjacent to the holding cage, interspersed with longer periods of returns to the holding cage. The second type involves immediate emergence, followed by rapid "dashes" around the periphery of the arena. Which of the two strategies is adopted appears to depend upon the animal's behavior at the time of initial access. Two subsequent experiments considered these strategies further. Experiment 2 indicated that Type I was more characteristic of males and Type II more characteristic of females, although there were no differences related to the female estrous cycle. In Experiment 3, the patterns of exploration over four consecutive tests were investigated. It was found that the strategy adopted by an individual is likely to be consistent across tests.     

Patterns of covert speech behavior and phonetic coding

In previous research a discriminative relationship has been established between patterns of covert speech behavior and the phonemic system when processing continuous linguistic material. The goal of the present research was to be more analytic and pinpoint covert neuromuscular speech patterns when one processes specific instances of phonemes. Electromyographic (EMG) recording indicated that the lips are significantly active when visually processing the letter “P” (an instance of bilabial material), but not when processing the letter “T” or a nonlinguistic control (C) stimulus. Similarly, the tongue is significantly active when processing the letter “T” (an instance of lingual-alveolar material), but not when processing the letters “P” or “C.” It is concluded that the speech musculature covertly responds systematically as a function of class of phoneme being processed. These results accord with our model that semantic processing (“understanding”) occurs when the speech (and other) musculature interacts with linguistic regions of the brain. In the interactions phonetic coding is generated and transmitted through neuromuscular circuits that have cybernetic characteristics.