Age effects in backward visual masking (Crawford paradigm)

Fifteen Ss in each of four age groups (5-, 10-, 16-, and 22–23-years old) received backward visual masking. Group effects occurred at longer ISIs indicating slower prerecognition processing for younger Ss. In a second experiment 19-, 35-, and 55-year-old Ss were administered backward visual masking under the identical procedures of Exp. 1. The oldest Ss performed significantly worse than 19- and 35-year-old Ss, which did not differ significantly from each other. The general methodological features of both studies, as well as the obtained relationships were discussed.     

Issues and considerations regarding the use of assessment instruments in the evaluation of competency to stand trial

Since the early 1960s, a number of instruments, reflecting a broad range of assessment methods, have been developed to assist in the evaluation of competency to stand trial. These instruments have taken various forms including checklists, self-report questionnaires, sentence-completion tasks, and interview-based instruments with and without criterion-based scoring. This article reviews these assessment instruments with a specific focus on their contribution to the competency evaluation process. Furthermore, relevant issues and considerations regarding the use of these instruments are outlined, including a comparison of screening versus assessment applications of these instruments, balancing standardized approaches with individualized assessments, the integration of instrumentally derived data with other components of a competency evaluation, and the communication of results to the fact finder. Each of these issues is discussed in relation to specific competency assessment instruments. Overall, we argue that each of the competency assessment instruments developed to date can make a contribution to the competency evaluation process and this article serves to delineate those areas in which these contributions are made.     

A reaction time paradigm to assess (implicit) complaint-specific dysfunctional beliefs

We investigated whether an implicit association test (IAT) can be used to assess dysfunctional beliefs in the realm of psychopathology. As a first exploration we therefore constructed a IAT that was designed to differentiate between high and low social anxious individuals. Social situation and neutral words were the targets (e.g. date vs hall), and positive and negative outcomes (e.g. compliment vs rejection) the associated attributes. High social anxious women (N=32) showed the predicted deterioration of task performance if the required responses switched from compatible to incompatible with the idea that social situations are related to negative outcomes and vice versa, whereas the opposite was true for low anxious women (N=32). Thus a modified IAT seems a useful and highly flexible tool to implicitly assess complaint-specific dysfunctional associations and may be a valuable addition to the usual (explicit) self-report measures of patients' beliefs.     

Use of the Conners-wells adolescent self-report scale (short form) with children

The short form of the Conners-Wells Adolescent Self-Report Scale (CASS:Short) is administered to 319 children and 844 adolescents to investigate whether the instrument can be used with respondents under the age of 12. Mothers of all respondents are asked to rate each child using a measure designed to assess a parallel set of problem behaviors. The factor structure of the CASS:Short is tested in both samples and is found to have good fit to the data. Mean levels of ADHD symptomatology are also examined for possible sex and age effects, as was the relationship between parent and self-report ratings. The overall results provide empirical support for the use of the CASS:Short with children ages 7 to 11.     

Preparing for perception and action (I): the role of grouping in the response-cuing paradigm

Human skilled behavior requires preparatory processes that selectively make sensory and motor systems more efficient for perceiving the upcoming stimulus and performing the correct action. We review the literature concerning these preparatory processes as studied by response-cuing paradigm, and propose a model that accounts for the major findings. According to the Grouping Model, advance or precue information directs a dynamic process of subgroup making-that is, a process of stimulus- and response-set reconfiguration-whereby the internal representation of the task is simplified. The Grouping Model assigns a critical role to the unit of selection, with Gestalt factors and interresponse dependencies mediating the formation and strength of stimulus and response subgroups. In a series of five experiments, we manipulated perceptual and motoric grouping factors, and studied their independent and interactive effects on the pattern of precuing benefits. Generally, the results were consistent with the Grouping Model's account of response-cuing effects.     

Development of a short form of the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI)

The Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) is widely used in research and practical settings and has particular application to the assessment and treatment of test anxiety in student populations. However, there are a number of instances in which a short version of the TAI would be more appropriate, especially when time constraints preclude the use of the full form. Similar short forms have been developed for other measures such as the State scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; T. M. Marteau & H. Bekker, 1992). The authors of the present study aimed to develop a short form of the TAI. The TAI was completed by 333 undergraduate psychology students. Item-remainder correlations were used to compare short forms with varying numbers of items. Internal consistency and concurrent and construct validity were assessed in hypothetical and actual examination conditions. A 5-item short form produced optimal reliability and validity, and a balance of items from the Worry and Emotionality subscales of the TAI. Further research is needed to replicate these results, but the 5-item short form of the TAI shows promise, particularly for contexts in which time demands preclude the use of longer versions.     

Response grouping in the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm: models and contamination effects

Response grouping is a ubiquitous phenomenon in psychological refractory period (PRP) tasks, yet it hampers the analysis of dual-task performance. To account for response grouping, we developed several extended versions of the standard bottleneck model, each of which incorporates a possible grouping mechanism into this model. Computer simulations were used to assess how the predictions of the standard model would change with each grouping mechanism. One set of simulations investigated the basic effects of grouping on the means and intercorrelation of the reaction times in the two tasks, as well as the percentage of trials with short interresponse times (IRTs). A second set of simulations examined whether response grouping would invalidate the use of PRP paradigms for localizing experimental effects. Finally, we investigated whether the post-hoc elimination of trials with short IRTs removes the contaminating effects of response grouping.     

Representational momentum and Michotte's (1946/1963) "launching effect" paradigm

In A. Michotte's (1946/1963) launching effect, a moving launcher contacts a stationary target, and then the launcher becomes stationary and the target begins to move. In this experiment, observers viewed modifications of a launching effect display, and displacement in memory for the location of targets was measured. Forward displacement of targets in launching effect displays was decreased relative to that of targets (a) that were presented in isolation and either moved at a constant fast or slow velocity or decelerated or (b) that moved in a direction orthogonal to previous motion of the launcher. Possible explanations involving a deceleration of motion or landmark attraction effects were ruled out. Displacement patterns were consistent with naive impetus theory and the hypothesis that observers believed impetus from the launcher was imparted to the target and then dissipated.     

Object-based selection in the Baylis and Driver (1993) paradigm is subject to space-based attentional modulation

Three experiments re-examined Baylis and Driver's (1993) strong evidence for object-based selection, that making relative apex location judgments is harder between two objects than within a single object, with object (figure-ground) segmentation determined solely by color-based perceptual set. Using variations of the Baylis and Driver paradigm, the experiments replicated a two-object cost. However, they also showed a large part of the two-object cost to be attributable to space-based factors, though there remained an irreducible cost consistent with 'true' object-based selection.     

The development of category-based induction: reexamining conclusions from the induction then recognition (ITR) paradigm

Three studies examined the development of category-based induction using an induction then recognition (ITR) procedure in which participants make category-based predictions about study items and are then given a surprise recognition test that requires discrimination between old and new category members. Exposure duration for study items was either self-paced (Experiment 1) or fixed for 5-year-olds and adults (Experiments 2a-b). Adults always showed a decrement in recognition performance following induction. Children showed the same decrement when exposure duration was equated across age groups. These results show that both young children and adults spontaneously access category-level information during induction. When study exposure time is self-paced, however, children may process additional, noncategorical aspects of study stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved).     

Temporal characteristics of visibility in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and humans (Homo sapiens) assessed by a visual-masking paradigm

We used the visual-masking paradigm to compare temporal characteristics of chimpanzee vision with those of humans. Two types of masking experiments were conducted. One type involved masking by noise, in which the visibility of the geometric pattern target was tested with a spatially overlapping noise as the mask stimulus. The other type involved paracontrast and metacontrast masking, in which the mask stimuli flanked but did not spatially overlap the target stimuli. Temporal characteristics regarding the visibility of target stimuli, displayed as functions of temporal asynchrony between target and mask stimuli, differed with the mask type in chimpanzees as in humans. Peak deterioration in visibility occurred at the point of minimum temporal asynchrony both in forward and backward masking by noise, but was not at 0 ms temporal asynchrony when the target and mask stimuli did not spatially overlap. These results suggest that chimpanzees and humans share the underlying mechanisms in two kinds of temporal inhibition caused by spatially overlapping and non-overlapping mask stimuli.     

Interactive learning in the paradise fish (Macropodus opercularis): an ethological interpretation of the second-order conditioning paradigm

This study was aimed at the examination of ‘mental construction’ in paradise fish by interactive learning, which is suggested as an alternative hypothesis for backward or second-order conditioning. Avoidance of goldfish was established in paradise fish by presenting a harmless goldfish (a novel stimulus) after an aversive event (mild electric shocks) in the dark compartment of a shuttle tank. It was found that this avoidance depended on context pre-exposure. Experiment 1 was designed to study the effect of mild shocks on shuttling activity in a familiar context. Experiment 2 aimed at establishing fear-conditioning to the goldfish in a higher-order conditioning paradigm. In the course of training, unpaired stimuli were presented in the dark compartment of the shuttle tank in such a manner that the presentation of mild shocks (20 mA) preceded the encounter with a harmless fish (goldfish). Experiment 3 demonstrated the role of context pre-exposure in interactive learning. Results indicate that (1) while 60 mA shocks resulted in avoidance of the dark compartment, the 20 mA mild shocks affected exploratory behaviour; (2) after pre-exposure to the training environment, paradise fish avoided the dark compartment containing goldfish provided that subjects had previously encountered mild, explorative shocks there; (3) this conditioned fear, a ‘mental construction’ of a potential danger, was proved to be transferable to another context and was consequently aimed specifically at the goldfish, a living being, rather than the training context; (4) the pre-exposure to the shuttle tank was an important part of this training procedure, that is, only subjects habituated to the shuttle tank avoided the goldfish. Results are discussed in the framework of the Interactive Learning Hypothesis, which has been developed as an ethological approach to a higher-order conditioning paradigm. Received: 15 January 1999 / Accepted after revision: 18 August 1999     

The Strelau Temperament Inventory-revised (STI-R): Theoretical considerations and scale development

The development of a revised Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI-R) is reported. It is assumed that the STI-R provides a measure of the basic central nervous system (CNS) properties (strength of excitation, strength of inhibition, and mobility of the CNS) as understood by Pavlov. On the basis of a series of studies, the development of the final forms of the revised STI has undergone several steps. The following forms have been elaborated: (1) a 252-item pilot form of the STI-R; (2) a 166-item STI-R with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (3) a short form (84 items) of the STI-R (STI-RS) with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (4) a 166-item STI-R with a 4-point Likert scale; and (5) an 84-item STI-RS with a 4-point rating scale. The psychometric characteristics of the consecutive versions of the revised STI improved from step to step, and in general these characteristics are judged as being satisfactory. Especially recommended by the authors are versions (4) and (5), which have, among other things, the highest reliability scores. They are regarded as the final forms of the STI-R and STI-RS.     

A short form of the Autonomy Scale: properties of the Autonomy-Connectedness Scale (ACS-30)

The Autonomy Scale (Bekker, 1993) measures individual differences in gender-linked autonomy, a psychological condition resulting from the process of individuation and separation. The theoretical background of the concept is found in a combination of feminist, neoanalytical object relations theory and attachment theory. The 3 subscales are Self-Awareness, Sensitivity to Others, and Capacity for Managing New Situations. We report the development and properties of the Autonomy-Connectedness Scale (ACS-30), a shortened 30-item version of the Autonomy Scale. We present 2 studies. In the first study, we examined the structure of the scale as well as its validity and reliability. The second study was aimed at further validation by relating the ACS-30 to various indexes of psychopathology. Exploratory as well as confirmatory factor analyses provided support for a 3-factor structure that was identical to that of the original scale. The ACS-30 showed good internal consistency reliability and an expected pattern of convergent validity with personality and mental health variables. The psychometric properties of the ACS-30 suggest it can be used to assess gender-linked autonomy. It also has the advantage of being more economical and simple as compared with the original 50-item version.     

Dimension-based visual attention modulates dual-judgment accuracy in Duncan's (1984) one- versus two-object report paradigm

Four experiments, adapting the object-judgment paradigm developed by J. Duncan (1984), examined the relationship between object-based and domain-based mechanisms of visual attention. The experiments demonstrated a cross-domain cost, in terms of accuracy, when observers made dual color-form judgments to one or two overlapping objects presented briefly, relative to within-domain, dual-color and dual-form judgments. This domain-based selection effect was additive to an object-based effect, a cost of making dual judgments to separate objects, as reported by J. Duncan (1984). The pattern of object- and domain-based effects points to a capacity limitation in how multidimensional features are bound into a coherent object representation, consistent with the dimension-weighting account of H. J. Miller, D. Heller, and J. Ziegler (1995), which postulates that there is a limit to the total selection weight available to be allocated to an object's dimensions.     

One retrieval trial induces reconsolidation in an appetitive learning paradigm in honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Combining memory retrieval with the application of a protein synthesis-inhibitor leads to an amnestic effect that is referred to as the reconsolidation phenomenon. Several behavioural studies demonstrate that only a few or weak retrieval trials (that do not result in significant extinction) lead to this phenomenon. In contrast, many trials (that result in significant extinction) combined with a protein synthesis inhibitor result in an inhibition of the extinction memory. Based on these findings it was suggested that extinction is the boundary condition for reconsolidation: when extinction is induced the consolidation of the extinction memory is the dominant process. Recently we were not able to confirm this hypothesis in the honeybee (Apis mellifera): We did not find the reconsolidation phenomenon after one retrieval trial, but demonstrated reconsolidation after five retrieval trials that led to extinction. To exclude that this observation resembles a special case in insects we here wanted to know if one retrieval trial induces reconsolidation as it has been demonstrated before in many other species. To do so we used experimental parameters that had been used before to demonstrate consolidation in the honeybee with the exception that this time the protein synthesis-inhibitor was applied 1 h after one memory retrieval instead after acquisition. We thereby demonstrate the reconsolidation phenomenon after one retrieval trial but only when using the doubled dose of protein synthesis-inhibitor that has been used to inhibit consolidation.     

Perception time measured with the slope-transition paradigm (STP): category, set size, and task manipulations

A perception time measure was obtained with the 'slope-transition paradigm' (STP), which is described in detail. In two experiments with the paradigm, participants viewed two sequential data frames, each presented for a wide range of durations. They made a binary response based on combined information from the two frames. The results showed piecewise linear response-time versus frame-duration functions with a slope-0 branch at short durations, followed by a slope-1 branch. The duration where the two branches met (the slope transition) was interpreted as the end of the perception of frame 1. For longer durations, the participant had completed the perception of frame 1 and was forced to waste time waiting for data from frame 2. In experiment 1, an odd-digit enumeration task was used, and set size and distractor category (even digits versus consonants) were varied. In experiment 2, a same/different task with digits was used and the type of judgment (literal versus parity) was varied. Perception time increased with set size. Distractor category and judgment type affected post-perceptual processes. The perception time measure of the STP is considered in relation to the attentional blink, repetition blindness, and object files.