目标设置对工作记忆成绩影响的实验研究

为了回应Locke提出的“目标设置理论仍然需要发展”的观点,本文从认知心理学的角度对目标设置理论进行了检验。结果表明：设置明确且有一定难度的目标比设置模糊或一般性目标会使被试产生更高水平的努力,从而提高成绩;设置明确但难度偏低的目标与设置模糊目标的成绩间并无显著性差异;被试对目标的可接受性程度越高,成绩越好;任务难度变量对目标难度与成绩之间的调节效应要通过被试对策略的发掘和使用以及在时间方面给予一定的压力才能得到体现。     

目标设置过程的理性特征分析

本文运用个案研究方法 ,从人类理性的角度分析了企业在不同的生产经营条件下的目标设置方式 ,发现不确定性和目标难度对管理者的目标设置过程有很大的影响。在确定的 ,且任务较容易的情况下 ,目标设置是以一种与理性期望模型相一致的方式进行的 ,而在高度不确定的条件下 ,管理者则倾向于采用渐进适应的模式设置目标。对管理者的经营活动作进一步深入的分析发现 ,在高难度的任务目标情景中 ,决策者更多地从战略的层次 ,而不是从具体的层次上寻求实现目标的途径 ,从而提出了目标难度与实绩的“策略搜索层次”假设     

目标设置理论及其新进展

目标设置理论是近来研究最多、影响最大的一种激励理论,它从设置明确目标的角度来研究激励问 题。理论提出以后,研究者不断对它进行补充完善,文章主要介绍了目标设置理论研究发展过程中 提出的两个模型：基本模型和扩展模型。并对将来的研究方向进行了展望。     

中学优、差生目标设置效果的实验研究

从时间管理倾向和目标设置的有关理论出发,设计了两个实验任务,考察了中学优、差生目标设置的效果。结果发现,中学优、差生在目标设置效果上存在一定差异。在简单任务上,中学优差生在完成任务的时间和准确率上均不存在显著差异;在复杂任务上,二者都存在显著差异,优生好于差生。研究还发现,在完成任务的时间上,目标设置对中学优生和差生的影响具有一致性,复杂任务明确目标的成绩明显好于不明确目标的成绩。     

目标设置理论及其在企业管理中的应用

目标设置理论是近年来心理学和企业管理中都研究较多、影响较大的一种激励理论。章回顾了目标设置理论的形成、目标心理机制、目标设置研究的主要结论;探讨了目标状况对行为绩效的影响;最后指出了在企业管理中如何运用目标设置理论并对未来的研究方向进行了展望。     

目标设置理论研究综述

该文主要介绍了目标设置理论的研究重点和主要的研究结果、目标设置理论的基本元素和高绩效循环模式,并总结了目标与满意感和性格的关系方面的研究结果。文章最后提出了目标设置理论的新的研究方向。     

目标定向与进步反馈对优差生写作成绩影响的实验研究

本研究以24名优生和24名学习困难学生(以下简称差生或学困生)为被试,通过实验探讨了目标定向与进步反馈对优差生写作成绩的影响。结果表明：(1)目标定向和反馈对优生的写作成绩影响不显著;(2)在成绩目标定向时,接受进步反馈的差生其作文成绩显著优于无进步反馈的差生;在掌握目标定向时,进步反馈对差生的影响不显著;(3)在无进步反馈时,掌握目标定向的差生其写作成绩显著优于成绩目标定向的差生;在给予进步反馈时,目标定向对差生的影响不显著。     

大学生目标设置特点及其对高等教育启示的探析

关于目标设置问题的研究,最早是开始于工业心理学,但对目标的研究主要是集中于探讨企业目标的问题。随着动机心理学的发展,目标设置理论越来越多的被应用在教育理论。“目标设置理论”（goalsettingtheory）认为目标本身就具有激励作用,目标能把人的需要转变为动机,使人们的行为朝着一定的方向努力,并将自己的行为结果与既定的目标相对照,及时进行调整和修正,本研究就是在此理论的基础上,对大学生的目标设置特点进行研究。     

自闭症儿童视觉动态信息的注意加工特点——来自多目标追踪任务的证据

为了考察中低功能自闭症儿童在动态条件下的多目标注意加工特点,研究采用多目标追踪实验范式,具体追踪任务采用多目标随机运动和碰撞反弹算法。实验设计为两因素混合设计,组间变量为年龄和性别匹配的中低功能自闭症和正常儿童组,组内变量为追踪目标数量（分别为1、2、3、4个目标）,因变量为被试在多目标追踪任务中的追踪正确率和追踪容量。结果发现：（1）中低功能自闭症儿童在目标数量为1到目标数量为4时的正确率均明显低于正常儿童,且标准差变异较大,中低功能自闭症儿童的多目标的持续追踪能力和稳定性存在一定的缺陷;（2）当目标数量为1时,正常组儿童与中低功能自闭症儿童的追踪容量差异不显著;目标为2、3、4时,两组追踪容量差异均显著。不同目标数量情况下中低功能自闭症儿童平均的注意容量为0.83~1.24个（平均容量约为1个）明显低于正常儿童的0.95~3.72个（最大容量接近4个）。中低功能自闭症儿童在多目标追踪上表现为单焦点注意加工的特点,存在一定程度的注意转移缺陷。     

学习困难儿童的问题解决特点研究

本研究选取学习困难儿童和正常儿童各 3 2名 ,设置河内塔问题解决的情境 ,采用临床观察法 ,对学习困难儿童在问题解决中的特点作了初步的探究。研究发现 :1与正常儿童相比 ,学习困难儿童在发现和有效运用策略方面明显不足 ,但当学习困难儿童对问题情境比较熟悉后 ,有明显的进步 ;2一定的提示并不能帮助学习困难儿童最有效地应用策略。     

Instructor Feedback for College Writing Assignments in Introductory Classes

We compared three instructor feedback protocols to determine whether minimal instructor feedback could improve undergraduate students' writing skills in large introductory classes. The three feedback conditions were specific feedback, nonspecific feedback, and grade only. Sixty community college students participated in the study. Sections of an Introduction to Human Services course were randomly assigned to the three feedback conditions. Students wrote 9 timed essays during the semester. Pretest data were collected from the first essay at the beginning of the semester. Posttest data were taken from the final essay. Data for each student's essays consisted of the number of words written, the number of spelling errors, and the number of syntax grammar errors. Between the pretest and the posttest, students wrote 7 timed essays during class periods. Students in the specific feedback condition received a tally of spelling and grammar errors on grade criteria sheets and the location of the errors marked on their essays. In the nonspecific feedback condition, students received a tally of the errors on their grade criteria sheets but the locations of the errors were not marked on the essays. In the grade only condition, students received feedback on the number of points they had earned for each essay. Significant differences were found for pretest–posttest difference (gain) scores for the proportion of errors to the number of words written between the specific feedback condition and the grade only condition. Specific feedback decreased the proportion of errors to words written. The grade only condition maintained the same proportion of errors to words written from pretest to posttest. Significant differences were also found between difference (gain) scores for total errors between the specific feedback condition and the grade only condition and between the nonspecific feedback condition and the grade only condition.     

Subgoals as substitutes or complements: the role of goal accessibility

The self-regulation process often involves breaking an ongoing goal (e.g., keeping in shape) into many individual, constituent subgoals that monitor actual actions (e.g., eating healthy meals, going to the gym). The article examines how pursuing each of these subgoals may influence subsequent goal pursuit. The authors show that when people consider success on a single subgoal, additional actions toward achieving a superordinate goal are seen as substitutes and are less likely to be pursued. In contrast, when people consider their commitment to a superordinate goal on the basis of initial success on a subgoal, additional actions toward achieving that goal may seem to be complementary and more likely to be pursued. These predictions were tested in four studies that explored the conditions under which subgoals attainment have a counterproductive versus favorable effect on further pursuit of similar actions.     

Paths to Learning Ten-Structured Understandings of Teen Sums: Addition Solution Methods of Japanese Grade 1 Students

A group of 64 Israeli twelfth-grade students of two different ethnic backgrounds participated in an experiment exploring the effects of argumentative design and social identity on the learning of a charged, ethnicity-related historical controversy. Students were divided into two learning conditions: an argumentative-disciplinary condition and a conventional textbook-based control condition. Students wrote short essays about Israel's “Melting Pot” policy of immigration absorption, prior to and after evaluation of historical sources and discussion. In the argumentative-disciplinary condition the final argumentative level of writing and the frequencies of stand and plot change were higher than in the control essays. As for confirmation bias, primary plot, stand, and argumentative level of pre-essays predicted final outcomes in the conventional textbook-based learning condition; no such relation existed in the argumentative-disciplinary condition. Narratives from the different ethnic groups differed in the frequency, direction, and degree of change, all toward improved in-group image. The design decisions toward the facilitation of argumentative activity seemed to facilitate narrative change, while social identity needs seemed to motivate it.     

Steps Toward an Ecology of Writing in Digital Environments: A 21st-Century Walk Through van Gogh's Bedroom

This study examined how exposure to a computer-generated, avatar-based environment influences student composition of an essay in response to a writing prompt. Drawing on the distinctions between firsthand and secondhand experiences, this article sketches an ecological model of writing that attempts to explain why students exposed to an avatar-based environment wrote first-person essays in the present tense, whereas students exposed to a comparable web page-based environment wrote third-person essays in the past tense.     

THE INFLUENCE OF A READING AND WRITING CURRICULUM ON TRANSFER LEARNING ACROSS SUBJECTS AND GRADES

This study examined the influence of an innovative reading and writing curriculum on the expository writing and content learning of middle grade students. In Study One, students of teachers who were highly knowledgeable of the curriculum design wrote significantly better essays than students of less knowledgeable teachers. In Study Two, students transferred knowledge and strategies learned in the innovative curriculum to the writing of geography essays throughout the school year. Study Three found that 21% of the variance in the text-based content of Grade 8 social studies essays could be accounted for by text structure knowledge acquired in Grade 7.     

Effects of Self-Monitoring on the On-Task Behavior and Written Language Performance of Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities

The present study was conducted to determine the effects of self-monitoring and a changing criterion with public posting phase on student on-task behavior and written language performance. Four elementary school boys participated and were enrolled in an urban-based, elementary-level resource room for students with learning disabilities. Self-monitoring procedures for on-task behavior included the students listening to a tone recorded at 60-s intervals and responding to the question, “Am I on-task?” Written language performance involved the students writing for a 10-min. session and counting and graphing the number of words written. During baseline conditions, student on-task behavior and written language performance were collected. During the self-monitoring conditions, the students monitored their on-task behavior and written language performance simultaneously. In the changing criterion with public posting condition, the students received their goal for the day's session prior to writing, wrote, and recorded whether they met their goal. While the results show a functional relationship between self-monitoring and on-task behavior, the data for the relationship between self-monitoring and written language performance were less compelling. A greater increase occurred when the changing criterion with public posting condition was introduced. Results suggest that self-monitoring changed on-task behavior; however, further research needs to be conducted to determine the conditions that would produce comparable effects for written language performance. Several implications for students and teachers and parent training were discussed.     

Capitalizing on the Self-Referencing Effect in General Psychology: A Preliminary Study

After reviewing the literature on the effect of personal relevance (self-schema, self-referencing effect, autobiographical significance, etc.), I implemented a constructivist narrative assignment for general psychology students. I hoped the assignment would enhance learning of and memory for psychological principles. Students wrote personal relevance papers in which they described psychological principles in their own words and provided examples of how the principles they chose were relevant in their own lives. Students assigned to write the papers produced higher exam scores. Moreover, student feedback revealed other benefits, including improved writing quality, higher grades, and increased motivation to learn.     

Goal hierarchies and plan revision

This paper examined the effects of goal failure on plan revision. We argued that plans can be conceptualized as hierarchies of interrelated goals, such that broad superordinate goals are progressively subdivided into chains of more concrete subgoals. It was further expected that following negative feedback individuals would be biased to revise their goals by resetting those subgoals which were most closely linked to the point where failure occurred. In Study 1, methodological problems prevented an adequate test of the research hypotheses. Unexpectedly, individuals formulated their plans with revision in mind. In particular, planners tended to overset lower-level subgoals such that minor failures would allow them to still achieve their higher-level goals without revision. These findings were replicated in Study 2. Study 3 again examined goal revision. We utilized an experimental design to achieve more control over the task and plan content. As expected, it was found that goal revision was biased by the structure of the goal hierarchy. In particular, individuals tended to focus on the specific subgoal where failure feedback existed. In doing so, they tended to ignore the overall plan and made changes only to a small section of the goal hierarchy.The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Carol Bormann, Keith James, Richard Hollenbeck, and Howard Weiss.     

The Influence of Author Visibility on High School Students Solving a Historical Problem

This study investigated the influence of a visible author (one who writes in the first person, revealing personal beliefs and self) on adolescent students engaged in a historical reading-to-write task. Thirty high school sophomores and juniors were divided into 2 groups: 1 that read a passage from a textbook that featured an anonymous author (one who writes in the third person, revealing little about personal beliefs or self) and another that read a similar text featuring a visible author. Both groups then wrote a 1- to 2-page essay using information from the introductory passage and 6 additional historical documents. A subgroup of 6 of these students (3 from each condition) "thought aloud" through the entire process. Data from student essays and think-aloud protocols were analyzed to determine the influence of various levels of authorial presence on the ways students read, thought, and wrote about history. Students whose task began by reading a visible author tended to hold mental conversations with text authors, making judgments about those authors and thinking more about the history under discussion. The essays they wrote were longer and showed greater personal agency and awareness of audience. The nature of these relations and effects, both for the visible-author group and the anonymous-author group, are discussed.     

目标焦点监控下目标信息的建构与整合

探讨文本阅读过程目标焦点监控下读者对目标信息的建构与整合。采用移动窗口技术,要求被试阅读24篇含有主人公目标的记叙文,设计了子目标未实现、子目标曲折实现或子目标直接实现三种条件,对不同条件下目标启动句阅读时间进行分析。实验1对子目标曲折实现与子目标未实现两种条件下目标启动句阅读时间进行比较,结果表明,曲折实现条件下目标启动句阅读时间长于未实现条件下目标启动句的阅读时间,说明在没有共振的情况下,目标启动句也可以激活先前的目标信息引发目标整合。实验2比较在子目标曲折实现与子目标直接实现条件对目标启动句阅读时间,以探讨在目标焦点条件下是否对相关信息进行追随性建构,结果表明,曲折实现条件下目标启动句阅读时间与直接实现条件下目标启动句的阅读时间差异不显著,说明在目标焦点监控下可以发生阅读信息的追随性建构。本实验结果初步证明,阅读不同文本信息可能会引发不同的信息加工活动,建构主义理论与记忆基础文本加工理论都只是说明了文本阅读信息加工的一个侧面。