Using connectionist models to guide assessment of psychological disorder

Connectionist models are introduced as promising tools for understanding the nature of psychological disorders and guiding their assessment. Specifically, ways in which connectionist models can guide the following aspects of the assessment process are described: understanding what constructs are relevant to assess, designing approaches to assessing these constructs, and understanding individual differences in data from assessments. Two extended examples are given based on the authors' research on cognitive aspects of depression and Alzheimer's disease.     

A structure-based approach to psychological assessment: matching measurement models to latent structure

The present article sets forth the argument that psychological assessment should be based on a construct's latent structure. The authors differentiate dimensional (continuous) and taxonic (categorical) structures at the latentand manifest levels and describe the advantages of matching the assessment approach to the latent structure of a construct. A proper match will decrease measurement error, increase statistical power, clarify statistical relationships, and facilitate the location of an efficient cutting score when applicable. Thus, individuals will be placed along a continuum or assigned to classes more accurately. The authors briefly review the methods by which latent structure can be determined and outline a structure-based approach to assessment that builds on dimensional scaling models, such as item response theory, while incorporating classification methods as appropriate. Finally, the authors empirically demonstrate the utility of their approach and discuss its compatibility with traditional assessment methods and with computerized adaptive testing.     

Multilevel models in developmental psychological research: Rationales and applications

The armoury of statistical techniques has recently been enhanced with the multilevel model for longitudinal data. The present article explains the multilevel model for longitudinal data to the statistically non-sophisticated reader. It shows how the model relates to the five rationales of longitudinal research, as they were put forward by Baltes and Nesselroade (1979). In addition, it shows how the model matches Wohlwill's methodology of developmental functions. To elucidate the model further, three applications are given. The applications pertain to the development of children's sleeping duration during the first 18 months of life, the effects of early hospitalization on the daily frequency of crying, and the developmental relationship between social and solitary play.     

The development of therapeutic alliance during psychological assessment: patient and therapist perspectives across treatment

We examined the impact of patient- and therapist-rated alliance developed during psychological assessment on the subsequent alliance measured early and late in formal psychotherapy. We hypothesized that a working alliance developed during psychological assessment conducted from a collaborative therapeutic model of assessment (TMA; Finn & Tonsager, 1992, 1997; Fischer, 1994) between the patient and therapist would carry into formal psychotherapy. We also hypothesized that alliance for those patients receiving a TMA would be significantly greater than patients receiving psychological testing as usual. To test this hypothesis, we administered the Combined Alliance Short Form-Patient Version (Hatcher & Barends, 1996) and the Combined Alliance Short Form-Therapist Version (Hatcher, 1999) to a sample of outpatients and their therapists at the end of the assessment feedback session, early, and late in psychotherapy. The hypotheses were supported as alliance scales rated at the assessment feedback session demonstrated positive and significant relationships with alliance throughout formal psychotherapy and in relation to a control group. The clinical utility and research implications of these findings are discussed.     

The psychological assessment of Catholic clergy and religious referred for residential treatment

This study describes the psychological problems of a group of Catholic clergy and religious who were referred for residential treatment. Psychological test data were obtained from 29 men and 13 women ranging in age from 29 to 64. The main tests used were the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and Exner's Comprehensive System approach to the Rorschach Inkblot Test. A consistent constellation of problems was found; an intellectualized orientation along with naive defensiveness and difficulty in the handling of emotions. The men did not respond in a stereotypically masculine way and 30% were found to be confused or distressed about their sexual orientation. The longstanding nature of the problems suggests that the need for help could have been identified with thorough evaluations at the seminary or novitiate level and so prevented some of the disruption that led to the referrals.     

Teaching psychological assessment: training issues and teaching approaches

Clinical psychology graduate programs need to pay attention to important issues involved in teaching psychological assessment, if graduate students are to be adequately prepared. Recent studies have suggested a gap between academic training in psychological assessment and internship expectations. Graduate students are not as well prepared as many internship settings would like. In addition to learning the fundamentals, students need help in dealing with issues of categorizing individuals, using tests in helpful ways, taking responsibility for decision-making, and developing a balance between critical evaluation of tests and appreciation of their usefulness. Teaching approaches for dealing with these issues are discussed. The importance of academic and clinical agencies working together is stressed. Goals for graduate training in assessment are suggested.     

Algebraic models for integration of painful and nonpainful electric shocks

Subjects rated the average intensity of two sequentially presented electric shocks, which were either painful (intensity range from 1 to 4 mA, Experiment 1) or nonpainful (intensity range from .6 to .9 mA). In both experiments, stimuli were presented in a 4 by 4 factorial design to allow tests of algebraic models of the integration process under analysis of variance (Anderson, 1970, 1974). Both sets of data were fit by the equation R_{i j}=w₁s₁+w₂+s₂, (w₁+w₂=1), where R_{i j}is the rating scale response, s₁ and s₂ the scale values for the first and second stimuli, respectively, and w₁ and w₂ associated weights. When stimuli were painful, w₁=w₂, and when stimuli were nonpainful, w₁< w₂. Subjective scale values as a function of stimulus intensity appear to increase nonlinearly for painful stimuli and linearly for nonpainful stimuli. Some implications of the results for pain research are discussed.     

Dimensions in data: testing psychological models using state-trace analysis

Cognitive science is replete with fertile and forceful debates about the need for one or more underlying mental processes or systems to explain empirical observations. Such debates can be found in many areas, including learning, memory, categorization, reasoning and decision-making. Multiple-process models are often advanced on the basis of dissociations in data. We argue and illustrate that using dissociation logic to draw conclusions about the dimensionality of data is flawed. We propose that a more widespread adoption of 'state-trace analysis'--an approach that overcomes these flaws--could lead to a re-evaluation of the need for multiple-process models and to a re-appraisal of how these models should be formulated and tested.     

Optimism as an indicator of psychological health: using psychological assessment wisely.

Healthy aspects of psychological functioning are often overlooked in traditional psychological assessment. When this happens, the client may become discouraged with his or her testing results, or perhaps worse, may feel that the assessor was not interested in obtaining a complete picture of who he or she is. Assessing healthy aspects of psychological functioning can be problematic, however; adding new instruments that only speak to one aspect of psychological functioning is not practical. A system is proposed in which one aspect of healthy psychological functioning--optimism--can be assessed using a standard projective test. Use of this scale can aid the assessor in conceptualizing the client's functioning and can also be a helpful tool to draw on in the course of treatment.     

Teaching culturally informed psychological assessment: conceptual issues and demonstrations

Multicultural assessment requires a strong conceptual foundation to address the complex and dynamic nature of culture. I present 3 conceptual issues as well as the demonstrations or exercises that I use to teach these concepts to students in a doctoral program of clinical psychology. The first conceptual issue is that multicultural assessment requires a solid foundation in traditional assessment theory and methods. Second, culturally informed assessors specify and test what about the social and cultural world matters to avoid making inferences based on group labels associated with ethnicity or race. Third, culturally responsive assessors must formulate and test both culture-specific and alternative (impairment or dysfunction) hypotheses, which refers to shifting cultural lenses (Kleinman & Kleinman, 1991). I then review exercises and demonstrations to illustrate these conceptual ideas. My aim is to help instructors guide students of assessment toward integrating a process-oriented way of thinking about culture, one that promotes a critical approach to our understanding of the role of culture in human behavior and its assessment.     

Music and physical activity in psychological well-being

The present study was designed to examine the effects of listening to music during exercise of moderate intensity on mood, state anxiety, and time to exhaustion as well as to evaluate sex differences in 27 physically active (14 men, 13 women) subjects between the ages of 20 and 30 years. Participants completed the Profile of Mood States and the State Anxiety Inventory before and after treadmill running in Music and No music conditions. Music and No Music conditions were randomly assigned, and participants exercised at 75% of their Heart Rate Reserve until voluntary exhaustion. Analysis indicated participants reported statistically significant mean changes on Tension, Depression, Fatigue, Confusion, and State Anxiety. However, the findings for emotions yielded no significant effect of music, except findings suggested that women, but not men, reported greater mean Fatigue after exercising in the presence of music than in its absence. Also, there was a statistically significant finding suggesting that women exercised longer with music than without.     

Two models,one mind: Integrating the biological and psychological

The investigation of psychopathology and the development of personality have traditionally been carried out by two different methods. Psychoanalytic theory has largely relied on the hermeneutic approach, that is the explication of meanings. This has yielded rich and clinically relevant insights into individual functioning, but has the danger of conflating meaning with causes. The empirical approach, the dominant method of science, has in recent years begun to establish aetiological factors for mental ill-health. In the clinical situation, these findings have to be applied with caution as one can only rarely determine with a particular individual how important they are. At the same time, these findings establish important parameters in understanding and treating patients. This paper argues that, for the effective practice of psychoanalytic psychotherapy, the therapist should both be conversant with these two models and be able to integrate them.     

The state of psychological assessment in Asia

The collection of articles in this special section provides a much-needed examination of the state of psychological assessment in various Asian countries or societies. In particular, the contributors review and critique assessment of personality, depression and anxiety, children and adolescents, and neuropsychological evaluation. The reviews cover the use of, and research on, imported measures (Western derived) as well as indigenous measures that were developed locally. The articles make a valuable contribution toward understanding not only the state of assessment in Asia but also larger issues such as the universal applicability of assessment instruments and the cross-cultural validity of models of human behavior.     

Commentary on high-performance computing and psychological models: Theory-building and model-fitting processes

For a psychological theorist, a merging of the interactive capability of a desktop computer and the speed/ memory capability of a supercomputer is needed. Ready-to-use modeling software is especially useful in the behavioral sciences so that researchers do not need to reinvent each other’s wheels. Dynamical models of psychological processes require different analyses from routine statistical treatments.     

Trajectory of cognitive science and psychological assessment: current status and expectations

Salient commonalities and distinctions of the set of contributions to this special section are synthesized and discussed. The examination provides a springboard for observations on future developments in cognitive-science applications. Issues considered include imminence and nature of clinical implementation, prediction of selected client transactions outside the assessment context, integration with complementing modes of clinical assessment, and reciprocal information sharing by clinical and nonclinical cognitive scientists.     

Issues in the psychological assessment of preschool children

This article discussed two issues relating to assessment of preschool children: (1) whether assessments of children of this age should be attempted, and (2) the issue of what is a “good” assessment. The general impression from a review of the literature and from personal experience is that preschool assessment is desirable and can be useful, but only under conditions which avoid labeling and attempt to circumvent and reduce the problems of reliability and validity, taking into consideration the interacting variables of the child, the task, and the setting.