An application of the prototype willingness model to drivers' speeding behaviour

We tested the prototype willingness model (PWM). The participants (N = 198) completed online questionnaire measures of PWM constructs (Time 1) and subsequent speeding behaviour (Time 2). Path analyses showed that the PWM accounted for 89% of the variance in subsequent (self‐reported) speeding behaviour. This significantly exceeded the variance accounted for by the theory of planned behaviour. In line with the PWM, both behavioural intention and behavioural willingness had direct effects on behaviour. Behavioural willingness had a significantly larger effect. Attitude and subjective norm both had indirect effects on behaviour through both behavioural intention and behavioural willingness. Prototype (similarity) perceptions had indirect effects on behaviour through behavioural willingness only. The findings support the notion that driving is governed by reactive decision‐making (willingness), underpinned by prototype perceptions, attitudes and subjective norms, to a greater extent than it is deliberative decision‐making (intentions), underpinned by attitudes and subjective norms. The implications for safety interventions are discussed.     

The relationship between viewing US-produced television programs and intentions to drink alcohol among a group of Norwegian adolescents

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of exposure to US-produced television programs and family rules prohibiting alcohol use on the development of normative beliefs, expectancies, and intentions to drink alcohol in the next 12 months among a group of Norwegian adolescents who reported that they had not previously consumed alcohol. Data were collected via a survey administered to 622 eighth and ninth graders enrolled at ten junior highs in southeastern Norway. To examine these relationships we tested the fit of a structural equation model which was based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1988). Data from the non-drinkers (n= 392, 63% of the respondents) were used. To control for the influence of peer drinking on behavioral intentions, our model was tested under two group conditions: (1) those subjects reporting that they have no friends who drink alcohol and (2) those subjects reporting that they have one or more friends who drink. The findings indicate that the influence of TV exposure was a significant predictor (directly) of normative beliefs, expectancies (indirectly) and intentions to drink (both directly and indirectly) only for those subjects who reported having no friends who drink. For the group with non-drinking friends, family rules constrain intentions only indirectly by influencing normative beliefs. For those with friends who drink, however, family rules have a direct (inverse) effect on intentions. It is concluded that exposure to US-produced television programs functions as a limited knowledge source only for those subjects who had little or no personal experience with alcohol while the presence of family rules have limited impact on behavioral intentions.     

A dual-process approach to health risk decision making: The prototype willingness model

Although dual-process models in cognitive, personality, and social psychology have stimulated a large body of research about analytic and heuristic modes of decision making, these models have seldom been applied to the study of adolescent risk behaviors. In addition, the developmental course of these two kinds of information processing, and their relation to the development of self-regulation are not well understood at this time. The current paper reviews what leading dual-process models have to say about the development of analytic and heuristic decision making, and their implications for adolescent risk behavior. In addition, it reviews research on the prototype willingness model of adolescent decision making—a dual-process model designed specifically to address non-intentional, but volitional adolescent risk behavior. It also discusses the implications of dual-process models for intervention research.     

Concurrent alcohol and tobacco use among school-going adolescents in Namibia: Prevalence and risk factors

The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and risk factors for concurrent alcohol and tobacco use among school-going adolescents in Namibia. Data were from a sample of 4 531 Namibian middle school children (females = 53.1%; mean age = 15.8 years, SD = 1.8 years). They completed the Namibia Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) in 2013. Overall, 74.4% of alcohol users in the past month were frequent tobacco users; whereas 40.5% of tobacco users in the past month were frequent alcohol users. Compared to students who were neither alcohol nor tobacco users (63.1%), concurrent alcohol and tobacco users were more likely to self-report with a lack of parent support, to have used illicit drugs, to have engaged in school truancy, to be sedentary in behaviour, to have engaged in a physical fight, and to have had two or more sexual partners. Substance use prevention and treatment programmes with adolescents should routinely address their risk for comorbid tobacco and alcohol use.     

Gender and age differences in spiritual development among early adolescents

ABSTRACT

The current study examined age and gender effects on spiritual development among early adolescents. A total sample of 416 Czech adolescents, age ranged from 11 to 15 years, was analysed for the study. Data was collected employing a non-experimental survey design by utilizing a self-administered questionnaire. A series of independent t-tests were performed to determine whether there were significant age and gender differences across the spirituality indicators: spiritual well-being, spiritual belief, and experiential spirituality. Results indicated that 11-year-old adolescents were more likely to demonstrate a higher level of spiritual well-being and spiritual belief compared with those 15-year-old; while 15-year-old adolescents were more likely to score high in experiential spirituality than their younger counterparts. Regarding gender, girls were more likely than boys to demonstrate a higher level of spirituality score. Practitioners in education and psychology should be mindful of the use of spirituality interventions applying the respective forms and practices according to age and gender to better promote positive youth development.     

Pro-social behaviour in young passengers: Predictive utility of the social reaction pathway of the prototype willingness model

This study examined the social reaction pathway of the Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) to assess how attitudes, subjective norms, prototype perception (favourability and similarity), and risk perception influenced young passengers’ willingness to speak up to a driver exceeding the posted speed limit by either 5 km/h or 10 km/h. It was hypothesised that participants would be more willing to speak up to drivers’ travelling 10 km/h over the posted speed limit than 5 km/h over the posted speed limit. Further, it was hypothesised that the PWM constructs would significantly predict passenger willingness to speak up to a driver travelling 5 km/h over the posted speed limit and 10 km/h over the posted speed limit. Young Australians aged 17 to 25 years (N = 136, Mage = 19.32, 77.9% female) were recruited to complete a 30-minute online questionnaire. As predicted, passengers were significantly more willing to speak up to drivers travelling at 10 km/h over the posted speed limit than drivers travelling 5 km/h over the posted speed limit. Further, the results from a linear regression revealed that some of the PWM constructs were effective in explaining the variance in willingness to speak-up to drivers travelling either 5 km/h or 10 km/h over the posted speed limit. These findings address a gap in road safety research by shifting focus from the behaviour of drivers to the behaviour of passengers. The focus on the pro-social behaviour of speaking up to drivers performing risk taking behaviours may help to inform future educational campaigns and interventions designed to reduce young peoples’ involvement in road crashes.     

An experimental examination of alcohol consumption,alcohol expectancy,and self‐blame on willingness to report a hypothetical rape

This study experimentally examined the role of victim alcohol intoxication, and self‐blame in perceiving and reporting rape to the police using a hypothetical interactive rape scenario. Participants (N = 79) were randomly assigned to consume alcohol (mean BAC = 0.07%) or tonic water before they engaged in the scenario. Alcohol expectancy was manipulated, and participant beliefs about the beverage they thought they had consumed and their feelings of intoxication were measured. Alcohol consumption and expectancy did not affect the likelihood that the nonconsensual intercourse depicted in the scenario was perceived and would be reported as rape. Participants with higher levels of self‐blame were less likely to say they would report the hypothetical rape. Self‐blame levels were higher for participants who believed they had consumed alcohol, and were associated with increased feelings of intoxication. The implications are discussed.     

Affective responses to movie posters: differences between adolescents and young adults

Although the link between cognition and affect in the advertising context has been demonstrated in several studies, no research to date has considered adolescents’ affective responses to movie posters and their attitudes to negative and positive images. A 2 (between subjects) × 4 (within subjects) mixed‐factorial experiment design comprising two groups of subjects (80 adolescents and 80 young adults) and four advertising stimuli (two highly positive images and two highly negative images) was used to test the differences in the subjects’ attitudes to advertising, positive and negative affect, and viewing intentions. Although the adolescents, compared to the young adults, did not appear to have significantly stronger attitudes to emotional advertisements (ads), they showed a similar level of intensity of affective response when exposed to negative and positive images.     

Moral judgement in adolescents: Age differences in applying and justifying three principles of harm

This study investigated the application and justification of three principles of harm in a cross-sectional sample of adolescents in order to test recent theories concerning the source of intuitive moral judgements. Participants were 46 early (M _age = 14.8 years) and 40 late adolescents (M _age = 17.8 years). Participants rated the permissibility of various ethical dilemmas, and provided justifications for their judgements. Results indicated participants aligned their judgements with the three principles of harm, but had difficulty explaining their reasoning. Furthermore, although age groups were consistent in the application of the principles of harm, age differences emerged in their justifications. These differences were partly explained by differences in language ability. Additionally, participants who used emotional language in their justifications demonstrated a characteristically deontological pattern of moral judgement on certain dilemmas. We conclude adolescents in this age range apply the principles of harm but that the ability to explain their judgements is still developing.     

Effect of an intervention to prevent unwanted pregnancy in adolescents. A randomized,prospective study from Nordland County,Norway, 1999–2001

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of an intervention designed to prevent unwanted pregnancy in adolescents. A stratified sample of 74 compulsory schools was drawn at random from all compulsory schools in the county of Nordland in northern Norway. Of these 54 schools were willing to participate. The participating schools were assigned to four different groups according to a Solomon four‐group design. A total of 1183 pupils gave their informed consent for participation. For the intervention, a textbook in sex education was developed and handed out to pupils and teachers participating in the intervention groups. Data collections were carried out 1999–2001. The results from this study stem from data collected at post‐test 1. The individual was used as unit of analysis. Among adolescents who made their coital debut between the pre‐test and post‐test 1, more of those in the intervention group than in the pre‐test group reported use of contraception during first sexual intercourse. No other statistically significant effect of the intervention was found. The reason may be biased drop‐out. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Turning differences into possibilities: Using discourse analysis to investigate change in therapy with adolescents and their families

Discourse analysis affords researchers and practitioners improved understandings regarding how positive outcomes are accomplished in the conversations of family therapy. By investigating how change is constructed or ‘performed’ in therapeutic interactions, its analyses conceptually parallel those of the social constructionist approaches to family therapy. In this respect, discourse analysis offers empirical methods to examine claims about the constructive aspects of therapeutic conversations. These conceptual and research parallels are examined in how impasses in family therapy were transcended, rhetorically, between an adolescent, his parents and the therapist. We conclude that the research methods of discourse analysis can directly enhance the conversational skills and methods of therapists.     

Enhancing the intentional self‐regulation skills of Chinese adolescents living in orphanages: A school‐based intervention

Adolescents living in orphanages are at risk for problematic developmental outcomes. However, adolescents with higher levels of intentional self‐regulation (ISR) often exhibit higher levels of positive youth development and are more likely to avoid risk in such an environment. The present study sought to revise a suite of materials designed to promote ISR skills in U.S. youth, GPS to Success (Goal Selection, Pursuit of Strategies, and Shifting Gears), and examined the effect of these revised materials (GPS‐r) on the ISR skills of orphan adolescents in China. Sixty‐eight adolescents from 14 to 18 years old living in the same orphanage participated in the GPS‐r project. Participants were divided into an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group received training on the GPS‐r materials, which lasted for 11 weeks and took 45 min per week, whereas the control group did not receive training. The results revealed that ISR skills, particularly the dimensions of goal selection and pursuit of strategies, were significantly enhanced after the GPS‐r project for the experimental group, but not the control group. The findings highlight several implications for positive youth development interventions for youth in orphanages.     

An investigation of psychosocial factors related to changes in physical activity and fitness among female adolescents

Research examined the effects of a supervised physical activity program on potential psychosocial mediators and determined whether changes in these psychosocial variables predicted changes in physical activity and fitness. Sedentary adolescent females were assigned to an intervention (n?=?79) or comparison (n?=?67) group. Cardiovascular fitness (cycle ergometer), physical activity (3-Day Physical Activity Recall), and psychosocial variables related to physical activity (i.e., self-efficacy, perceived barriers, social support, enjoyment) were assessed at three time points over the 9-month study. An intention-to-treat analysis showed that the intervention did not impact any of the psychosocial variables, with the exception of perceived barriers, which increased in the intervention group. Longitudinal analyses showed that improvements in fitness were associated with positive changes in global self-efficacy and exercise enjoyment. Psychosocial variables did not mediate the program's effects on fitness or activity. However, individual level changes in psychosocial variables were related to changes in cardiovascular fitness.     

School bonding in children and adolescents: conceptualization,assessment, and associated variables

School bonding refers to the connections that youth have with their schools and various aspects of their academic lives. School bonding may be an important concept in prevention because it has been linked to various developmental and adjustment outcomes. This paper reviews conceptualizations, measurements, and theories of school bonding. Also considered are empirical studies that have linked school bonding to a variety of outcomes (substance use, delinquency, antisocial behavior, self-esteem). The review includes examination of how school bonding serves as a mediator in these relations and, in turn, is moderated by other variables. Despite inconsistencies in conceptualization and measurement, it is concluded that school bonding is an important construct and an appropriate target for intervention. Recommendations are offered regarding future research on school bonding, especially with respect to positive developmental outcomes and examination of variables that might moderate school bonding.     

Assessing gender differences in the relationship between religious coping responses and alcohol consumption

The purpose of this study is to see if the use of religious coping responses is associated with alcohol intake. In addition, tests are conducted to see if the relationship between religion and alcohol use varies by gender. Data from a recent nationwide survey (N?=?2173) indicate that greater use of religious coping responses is associated with less alcohol consumption. The findings further reveal that even though women use religious coping responses more often than men, the relationship between the use of religious coping responses and alcohol consumption is stronger for men than for women. This suggests that, with respect to alcohol consumption, men may benefit more from using religious coping responses than women. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Age differences in perceptions of memory strategy effectiveness for recent and remote memory

We examined whether young and older adults hold different beliefs about the effectiveness of memory strategies for specific types of memory tasks and whether memory strategies are perceived to be differentially effective for young, middle-aged, and older targets. Participants rated the effectiveness of five memory strategies for 10 memory tasks at three target ages (20, 50, and 80 years old). Older adults did not strongly differentiate strategy effectiveness, viewing most strategies as similarly effective across memory tasks. Young adults held strategy-specific beliefs, endorsing external aids and physical health as more effective than a positive attitude or internal strategies, without substantial differentiation based on task. We also found differences in anticipated strategy effectiveness for targets of different ages. Older adults described cognitive and physical health strategies as more effective for older than middle-aged targets, whereas young adults expected these strategies to be equally effective for middle-aged and older target adults.     

Children's behavioural reactions to marital conflict as a function of parents' conflict behaviours and alcohol problems

This paper examines how children's previous exposure to destructive marital conflict and parental problem drinking relate to children's immediate and specific behavioural reactions to marital conflict. Data are from 215 second-graders and their families participating in a larger study. Children watched analogues of marital conflict and indicated their behavioural response. Parents completed questionnaire measures of marital conflict and drinking problems. Children's exposure to marital stonewalling was associated with increased child intervention in conflict and decreased avoidance of conflict. Exposure to maternal drinking was related to child caretaking responses to escalated conflict. Exposure to paternal drinking was related to child mediation and avoidance of child-related conflict, but inactive response to escalated conflict. Boys were more likely to mediate and less likely to avoid escalated conflict.     

Gratitude across the life span: Age differences and links to subjective well-being

Abstract

Gratitude has been described as an adaptive evolutionary mechanism that is relevant to healthy psychological and interpersonal outcomes. Questions remain as to whether the presence and benefits of gratitude are consistent from young adulthood to old age; prior research has yielded mixed evidence. We examined the magnitude and direction of age differences in gratitude in three samples (combined N = 31,206). We also examined whether gratitude was associated with greater/lesser well-being at different periods in the life course. We found that the experience of gratitude was greatest in older adults and least in middle aged and younger adults. Further, we found that the associations between gratitude and subjective well-being remained relatively constant across the lifespan. Findings are discussed from a developmental perspective.