Reserve capacity of the elderly in aging-sensitive tests of fluid intelligence: replication and extension

Fluid intelligence belongs to that cluster of intellectual abilities evincing aging loss. To examine further the range of intellectual reserve available to aging individuals and the question of replicability in a new cultural and laboratory setting, 204 healthy older adults (mean age = 72 years; range = 60-86) participated in a short-term longitudinal training study. For experimental subjects, 10 sessions consisted of cognitive training involving two subability tests (Figural Relations, Induction) of fluid intelligence. The pattern of outcomes replicates and expands on earlier studies. Older adults have the reserve to evince substantial increases in levels of performance in fluid intelligence tests. Transfer of training, however, is narrow in scope. Training also increases accuracy of performance and the ability to solve more difficult test items. Difficulty level was estimated in a separate study, with a comparable sample of N = 112 elderly adults. Future research is suggested to examine whether intellectual reserve extends to near-maximum levels of performance.     

Coursework selection: A frame of reference approach using structural equation modelling

Background. Choice behaviour has far‐reaching consequences on students' educational careers. Previous models on course selection for example, the model of achievement‐related choices ( Wigfield & Eccles, 2000 ) and of self‐efficacy theory ( Bandura, 1997 ), stress the importance of ability perceptions (self‐concept of ability) as major determinants of choice. Aim. This article suggests a model of course selection, which assumes that comparisons within an internal frame of reference (as proposed by Marsh, 1986 , for the association between achievement and self‐concepts) can also be applied to the association between self‐concepts and course selection. It is therefore hypothesized that course selection is not only positively influenced by the self‐concept with respect to the corresponding subject, but also negatively with respect to alternative subjects. Moreover, it should be tested whether the effects of previous achievement on course selection are completely mediated by the self‐concepts. Sample. These assumptions were empirically tested using a sample of 296 students from secondary school classes, who were specializing in, for example, chemistry or biology in the following school term. Method. Self‐concepts and course selection were assessed via questionnaire. The postulated models were tested using a structural equation modelling approach for ordinal variables. Results. The core assumption, that course selection is determined by dimensional comparisons, was supported by significant negative paths from self‐concepts on the selection of non‐corresponding subjects. Furthermore, the effects of previous achievement on selection were completely mediated by self‐concepts. Conclusion. Previous models of choice behaviour should be extended, by considering not only the selected alternatives, but also the unselected ones. The finding that the influence of achievement on choice is completely mediated by self‐concepts, demonstrates that subjective interpretations of previous achievement determine subsequent behaviour.     

Meta-analytic structural equation modeling: a two-stage approach

To synthesize studies that use structural equation modeling (SEM), researchers usually use Pearson correlations (univariate r), Fisher z scores (univariate z), or generalized least squares (GLS) to combine the correlation matrices. The pooled correlation matrix is then analyzed by the use of SEM. Questionable inferences may occur for these ad hoc procedures. A 2-stage structural equation modeling (TSSEM) method is proposed to incorporate meta-analytic techniques and SEM into a unified framework. Simulation results reveal that the univariate-r, univariate-z, and TSSEM methods perform well in testing the homogeneity of correlation matrices and estimating the pooled correlation matrix. When fitting SEM, only TSSEM works well. The GLS method performed poorly in small to medium samples.     

Comparing standardized coefficients in structural equation modeling: a model reparameterization approach

We propose a two-stage method for comparing standardized coefficients in structural equation modeling (SEM). At stage 1, we transform the original model of interest into the standardized model by model reparameterization, so that the model parameters appearing in the standardized model are equivalent to the standardized parameters of the original model. At stage 2, we impose appropriate linear equality constraints on the standardized model and use a likelihood ratio test to make statistical inferences about the equality of standardized coefficients. Unlike other existing methods for comparing standardized coefficients, the proposed method does not require specific modeling features (e.g., specification of nonlinear constraints), which are available only in certain SEM software programs. Moreover, this method allows researchers to compare two or more standardized coefficients simultaneously in a standard and convenient way. Three real examples are given to illustrate the proposed method, using EQS, a popular SEM software program. Results show that the proposed method performs satisfactorily for testing the equality of standardized coefficients.     

Self-reported emotional intelligence and life satisfaction: Testing incremental predictive validity hypotheses via structural equation modeling (SEM) in a small sample

In a previous investigation, Palmer, Donaldson, and Stough (2002) examined the incremental predictive validity of the subscales from the TMMS and TAS-20 in predicting life satisfaction. To this effect, Palmer et al. (2002) used multiple regression and reported that only the Clarity (β = .20) subscale from the TMMS was uniquely related to SWLS. In this investigation, structural equation modeling was used for the purposes of modeling a general EI factor as a potential incrementally predictive predictor of life satisfaction. The results demonstrated that a general EI factor was associated with SWLS at β = .61 and that this effect was only partially mediated by PA and NA, such that the validity coefficient was reduced to β = .49. The results are discussed in light of the advantages of using structural equation modeling, even in cases where the sample size may not be considered particularly large (i.e., N = 100).     

Perceptions of ambiguously unpleasant interracial interactions: a structural equation modeling approach

Despite a general consensus in the United States that overtly racist acts are unacceptable, many ambiguous situations in everyday life raise questions of whether racism has influenced a person's behavior in an interracial encounter. The authors of the present study sought to (a) examine simultaneously an array of variables thought to be related to perceived racism and (b) investigate how the contribution of these variables may differ with respect to the asymmetry hypothesis, which suggests that acts of discrimination from a dominant person toward a subordinate person will be viewed as more biased than if the situation were reversed. The authors used a dual structural equation modeling approach. Results indicated that ethnic identity significantly predicted perceived racism. In addition, the extent to which cognitive interpretation style significantly predicted perceived racism depended on the ethnicity of participants involved in the interaction.     

Quantity,not quality: the relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory capacity

A key motivation for understanding capacity in working memory (WM) is its relationship with fluid intelligence. Recent evidence has suggested a two-factor model that distinguishes between the number of representations that can be maintained in WM and the resolution of those representations. To determine how these factors relate to fluid intelligence, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis on multiple number-limited and resolution-limited measures of WM ability. The results strongly supported the two-factor model, with fully orthogonal factors accounting for performance in the number-limited and resolution-limited conditions. Furthermore, the reliable relationship between WM capacity and fluid intelligence was exclusively supported by the number factor (r=.66), whereas the resolution factor made no reliable contribution (r=−.05). Thus, the relationship between WM capacity and standard measures of fluid intelligence is mediated by the number of representations that can be simultaneously maintained in WM, rather than by the precision of those representations.     

Cognitive processes in university learning: A developmental framework using structural equation modelling

Background. Both achievement goals and study processing strategies theories have been shown to contribute to the prediction of students’ academic performance. Existing research studies ( Fenollar, Román, & Cuestas, 2007 ; Liem, Lau, & Nie, 2008 ; Simons, Dewitte, & Lens, 2004 ) amalgamating these two theoretical orientations in different causal models have reported their associations with other adaptive strategies and motivational constructs – for example, effort expenditure. Despite this recognition, there have been to date very few studies that explored the relations between achievement goals, study processing strategies, effort, and academic performance over time. Aim of study. The primary focus of our study is to explore the relations between the aforementioned theoretical constructs over a 2‐year period. Specifically, we tested an empirical model that conceptualized the relations between performance‐approach and mastery goals, deep processing strategies, effort, and academic performance across six time points of data collection. Methodology. Two hundred and eighty‐one (161 females, 120 males) university students took part in this study. The participants were administered various Likert‐scale inventories and the overall course mark and final examination were used as indexes of academic performance. Results. Structural equation modelling indicated a relatively good fit to the a posteriori model and the hypothesized paths were, in part, supported. The major findings included the predictive effects of performance‐approach goals at Time 1 on deep processing strategies at Time 2 and mastery goals at Time 3; the predictive effect of mastery goals at Time 3 on effort at Time 4; the predictive effects of deep processing at Time 2 on mastery goals at Time 3 and Time 4. Furthermore, the placement of deep processing and effort in this structural model also accentuated the performance‐approach goals – mastery goals – effort – academic performance relation, and the performance‐approach goals – deep processing – mastery goals – effort – academic performance relation. Discussion. Our study has important theoretical and practical implications concerning the conceptualization of the performance‐approach and mastery goals relationship, and the use of goal structure and adaptive strategies (e.g., deep processing) to enhance academic learning.     

Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach.

A study was conducted in which 133 participants performed 11 memory tasks (some thought to reflect working memory and some thought to reflect short-term memory), 2 tests of general fluid intelligence, and the Verbal and Quantitative Scholastic Aptitude Tests. Structural equation modeling suggested that short-term and working memories reflect separate but highly related constructs and that many of the tasks used in the literature as working memory tasks reflect a common construct. Working memory shows a strong connection to fluid intelligence, but short-term memory does not. A theory of working memory capacity and general fluid intelligence is proposed: The authors argue that working memory capacity and fluid intelligence reflect the ability to keep a representation active, particularly in the face of interference and distraction. The authors also discuss the relationship of this capability to controlled attention, and the functions of the prefrontal cortex.     

Clarifying the role of impulsivity in dietary restraint: A structural equation modeling approach

This study was designed to clarify the relationship between the four dimensions of impulsivity in Whiteside and Lynam’s (2001) model and the two aspects of dietary restraint (Concern for Dieting and Weight Fluctuation) in a non-clinical sample. Data were collected from a volunteer community sample (N = 216) of women who responded to two self-report instruments related to impulsivity (UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale, Whiteside & Lynam, 2001) and dietary restraint (Restraint Scale, Polivy, Herman, & Warsh, 1978). A structural equation model was tested. The model provided a good fit to the data (χ²/df = 1.64, p < .0001, RMSEA = 0.054, 90% CI = 0.050–0.058, p-value for test of close fit (RMSEA > 0.05) = .035) and revealed that Concern for Dieting was positively related to Urgency (standardized β = 0.25, p < .01). Weight Fluctuation was related to lack of Perseverance (standardized β = 0.25, p < .01) and tended to relate to Sensation Seeking (standardized β = 0.17, p = .056). Urgency and lack of Perseverance were found to play a significant role in predicting Concern for Dieting and Weight Fluctuation.     

Networks of meaning and the bicultural mind: A structural equation modeling approach

The paper examines cultural frame-switching among bicultural participants at the level of associated meanings. Bicultural participants of Greek descent who live in the Netherlands were randomly primed with either Greek or Dutch cultural symbols and language. A monocultural Dutch group in the Netherlands and a monocultural Greek group in Greece, were involved as control groups. Structural equation modeling indicated that the Greek participants in Greece and the bicultural participants primed with Greek culture had a similar pattern of associations. This pattern differed from that of the Dutch participants and the participants primed with Dutch culture. Thus, the two different monocultural association patterns were replicated among bicultural individuals. The findings show that meanings are affected by cultural frame-switching, and provide further support for the dynamic constructivist approach.     

Validating running memory span: Measurement of working memory capacity and links with fluid intelligence

We manipulated running memory span tasks to examine effects on recall and relations with criterion measures of working memory capacity and general fluid intelligence. The goal of the manipulations was to limit or enhance opportunities for active input processing and response preparation in advance of test. We manipulated presentation rate in Experiment 1. Recall was higher at slow than at fast rates, but correlations with criterion measures were much the same across rate conditions. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the time at which the number of items to report was made known to the participants. They were given that information in advance (precue) or at test (postcue). Recall scores and correlations with criterion measures were much the same across cuing conditions. We conclude that running memory span provides valid measurement of working memory capacity that is predictive of higher order cognition across a wide range of conditions.     

Neighborhood social disorder as a determinant of drug injection behaviors: a structural equation modeling approach.

Neighborhood environments are increasingly recognized as a contextual determinant of health, behaviors, and disease; however, the pathways through which neighborhood characteristics impact health behaviors are poorly understood. This article examines pathways to elucidate how neighborhood social disorder may lead to HIV transmission. Data are from a baseline survey of 701 injection drug users from the Self-Help in Eliminating Lethal Diseases Study, an HIV prevention intervention in Baltimore. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the pathways among social disorder, psychological distress, and drug injection behaviors. The relationship between disorder and injection behaviors in the models tested suggests that psychological distress is higher in more socially disordered neighborhoods, that distress leads to greater injection frequency and equipment sharing, and that injection frequency predicts equipment sharing.     

Resilience and coping in trauma spectrum symptoms prediction: A structural equation modeling approach

Resilience is increasingly recognized as a relevant factor in shaping psychological response to natural disasters. Aim of the study is to examine in the context of a natural disaster the potential effects of resilience on the relation between coping and trauma spectrum symptoms, using structural equation modeling.A sample of 371 students who survived the earthquake in L’Aquila (Italy) were cross-sectionally evaluated using Resilience Scale for Adolescents, Brief Cope and Trauma and Loss Spectrum scale.The model shows a direct path of positive and emotional coping styles on resilience. Emotional coping shows also a direct impact on the outcome; positive and emotional coping results to be positively correlated as well as emotional and disengagement coping styles. Resilience directly affects the PTSD symptoms, partially mediating the impact of the coping styles. The model explains 30% of the variance in the outcome, i.e. the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms, with very good fit indexes.Resilience operates as a protective factor from stress symptom development. It is likely that emotional and disengagement coping skills are rapidly involved after a traumatic exposure but when problem focused coping intervenes, resilience allows it to buffer the stressors or even guides toward a more successful outcome.     

Relationships between thought-action fusion, thought suppression and obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a structural equation modeling approach

Research has shown that there are strong similarities in content between the obsessions and compulsions that characterize obsessive-compulsive disorder and nonclinical obsessions and compulsions. However, clinical and nonclinical obsessions and compulsions do differ with respect to characteristics like frequency, intensity, discomfort and elicited resistance. Two separate concepts have been invoked to explain how normal obsessions and compulsions may develop into clinical phenomena. First, it is suggested that thought-action fusion (TAF) contributes to obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Second, thought suppression may intensify obsessive-compulsive symptoms due to its paradoxical effect on intrusive thoughts. Although both phenomena have been found to contribute to obsessive-compulsive symptoms, possible interactions between these two have never been investigated. The current study explored how TAF and thought suppression interact in the development of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Undergraduate psychology students (N = 173) completed questionnaires pertaining to TAF, thought suppression and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Covariances between the scores on these questionnaires were analyzed by means of structural equation modeling. Results suggest that TAF triggers thought suppression, while thought suppression, in turn, promotes obsessive-compulsive symptoms.     

Appraised psychological workload, musculoskeletal symptoms, and the mediating effect of fatigue: a structural equation modeling approach

The aim of the present study was to test two structural models of the relationship between appraised psychological workload and musculoskeletal symptoms from the neck, shoulder, and upper and lower back with different aspects of perceived fatigue as mediating variables. In this cross-sectional study a questionnaire survey was conducted among employees at three Swedish assembly plants (n= 305). The proposed models were tested for one general fatigue dimension--lack of energy--and four specific fatigue dimensions--physical discomfort, physical exertion, lack of motivation, and sleepiness--using structural equation modeling. The results indicate that the role of perceived fatigue in the relationship between appraised workload and musculoskeletal symptoms is different for different aspects of fatigue. The general fatigue dimension, lack of energy, does not mediate the relationship. As regards the specific fatigue dimensions, the relationship is partially mediated by physical discomfort and lack of motivation but not by physical exertion or sleepiness. Appraised psychological workload has a unique effect on musculoskeletal symptoms not mediated by fatigue.     

Predictors of champion behaviors in an evidence-based parenting program: A structural equation modeling approach

The importance of champions in the implementation of evidence-based public health programs has been well established. Champions perform a range of behaviors which can have significant influence on the adoption and sustainability of interventions. This study investigates champion behaviors in parenting practitioners with the aim to provide insight into the range and extent that practitioners engage in champion behaviors and to examine predictors of practitioners' champion behaviors using structural equation modeling. Data were collected during a large international implementation survey of 1606 practitioners trained to deliver an evidence-based parenting program, the triple P—Positive Parenting Program. We developed a 13-item Champion Behaviors Scale which was administered alongside other measures of predictors of implementation outcomes. Perceived usefulness of the program was the most important facilitator of both public and personal champion behaviors. Certain desirable features of the program tended to not only be positively associated with the perceived usefulness of the program, but also had a unique impact on practitioners' personal champion behaviors. Higher positions within organizations were linked with more public champion behaviors. Although organizational support was found to be unrelated to champion behaviors in the structural model, it facilitated other predictors of champion behaviors.     

An account of the relationship between fluid intelligence and complex learning in considering storage capacity and executive attention

Although fluid intelligence and complex learning are conceptualized differently and assessed by apparently different measures, both theoretical accounts and empirical evidence suggest a relationship between the two constructs. In this study, major working memory aspects including the storage capacity and executive attention were proposed to account for the relationship between fluid intelligence and complex learning. A sample of 184 participants completed fluid intelligence and complex learning scales, as well as working memory measures that each included two or three treatment levels differing in the demands on capacity or executive control. The differences among the treatment levels provided a favorable precondition for employing fixed-links models to separate the core processes of storage capacity or executive attention from the auxiliary processes. Results indicated that both storage capacity and executive attention contributed significantly to fluid intelligence and complex learning. A further analysis showed that the two working memory aspects, particularly the storage capacity, accounted for most of the shared variance between fluid intelligence and complex learning.     

Process-based account for the effects of perceptual attention and executive attention on fluid intelligence: An integrative approach

Perceptual attention and executive attention represent two higher-order types of attention and associate with distinctly different ways of information processing. It is hypothesized that these two types of attention implicate different cognitive processes, which are assumed to account for the differential effects of perceptual attention and executive attention on fluid intelligence. Specifically, an encoding process is assumed to be crucial in completing the tasks of perceptual attention while two executive processes, updating and shifting, are stimulated in completing the tasks of executive attention. The proposed hypothesis was tested by means of an integrative approach combining experimental manipulations and psychometric modeling. In a sample of 210 participants the encoding process has proven indispensable in completing the tasks of perceptual attention, and this process accounted for a considerable part of fluid intelligence that was assessed by two figural reasoning tests. In contrast, the two executive processes, updating and shifting, turned out to be necessary in performance according to the tasks of executive attention and these processes accounted for a larger part of the variance in fluid intelligence than that of the processes underlying perceptual attention.