Canadian and Spanish youths' risk perceptions of drinking and driving, and riding with a drunk driver

The present research compared Canadian and Spanish youths' perceptions of the potential benefits and drawbacks of driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) and riding with a drunk driver (RDD). Eighty (41 female) Canadian and 87 (71 female) Spanish undergraduates completed a survey asking about their past and forecasted engagement in DUI and RDD, and their perceptions of the benefits and drawbacks of DUI and RDD. A sizeable proportion of both samples reported DUI and RDD in the past year. Past risk takers forecasted significantly greater chances of engaging in these behaviors in the following year compared to those who had not engaged in DUI and RDD. Both samples provided significantly more drawbacks than benefits of DUI and RDD. Whereas the benefits of both behaviors tended to refer to personal effects (e.g., save money, arrive faster) that occurred before, during, or after driving, the drawbacks referred to a range of outcomes (e.g., accident, kill/injure, penal sanction) that mostly occurred during driving. Although Canada and Spain differ in important respects (e.g., potential penalty for DUI), there were similarities in the two samples' perceptions of DUI and RDD. Young people are aware of the costs of these risky behaviors but nevertheless engage in them. These findings can inform theories of the co-occurrence of risky driving behaviors, and the development of prevention programs that focus on perceived outcomes.     

Analysis of correlations between psychological factors and self-reported behavior of motorcyclists in Malaysia,depending on self-reported usage of different types of motorcycle facility

Segregated road lanes for motorcyclists are one of the practices implemented by the Malaysian authority to decrease the number of road crashes involving motorcycles. In this study, the motorcycle lanes are divided into three types, exclusive, inclusive, and paved shoulder. This study examined the correlations between motorcyclists’ psychological factors and their risky riding behaviors (speeding and neglecting to wear helmet), depending on self-reported usage of different types of motorcycle facilities. The psychological factors discussed in this study were: attitude, desire, perceived behavior control, moral obligation, perceived danger, fear of being caught, and perception of others’ behaviors toward the risky behaviors. Quantitative analyses, including Structural Equation Modeling, were used as the analytical tools. The results demonstrated the statistically significant relationship of exclusive road lanes’ usage on speeding behavior. However, no statistically significant correlation was found for segregated lanes’ usage on helmet wearing behavior. Psychological factors were found affecting the motorcyclists’ likelihood of performing the risky behaviors. However, these factors influence speeding and helmet wearing behavior differently. The study offers recommendations and theoretical contributions to explain the complex relationships among the uses of segregated lanes, riders’ psychological factors, and their risky behaviors.     

A systematic investigation of the differential predictors for speeding,drink-driving,driving while fatigued,and not wearing a seat belt,among young drivers

Risky driving has been identified as a key contributor to road crashes. Past research suggests that different risky driving behaviours are influenced by different factors, but has not been systematic in its investigation of the factors associated with different behaviours. The present research systematically examined a range of relevant demographic, personality and attitudinal factors (age, gender, sensation seeking, driver anger, time urgency, authority rebellion, perceived relative risk, perceived personal risk, perceived costs, perceived benefits, and peer influence) in the prediction of speeding, drink-driving, driving while fatigued, and not wearing seat belts, for a student sample of young drivers. In addition, relevant mediators of the relationship between gender and risky driving, as well as moderators of the relationship between perceived risk and risky driving, were examined for each of the four behaviours. Results demonstrate that the lists of significant predictors differed between risky driving behaviours. In addition, perceived personal risk was observed to mediate the relationship between gender and driving while fatigued only, and gender was observed to moderate the relationship between perceived risk and risky driving, for drink-driving and not wearing seat belts. Results highlight the importance of designing individual road safety interventions for individual driving behaviours, and suggest factors which might be targeted in younger driver populations.     

The self-reported driving behaviour of young drivers in Lithuania: An application of the behaviour of young novice drivers scale – Lithuania (BYNDS-Li)

BackgroundWith just one year left in the Decade of Action for Road Safety, it is timely nations reflect on their progress in the realm of improving road safety more generally, and in young driver road safety specifically given the pernicious problem that is young driver risky driving behaviour and road crashes. Effective intervention requires a fundamental foundation of understanding the nature of the problem. Therefore the current study explored the self-reported risky driving behaviour of young drivers in Lithuania, a nation classified as a developed country as recently as 2015.MethodThe self-report Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS, 1) was applied in a sample of 457 Lithuanian young drivers aged 18–24 years, after a rigorous forward-backward translation process.ResultsSeven factors (risky exposure, transient rule violations, driver misjudgements, driver mood, vehicle overcrowding, personal seatbelt use, substance consumption) explained 65.2% of the variance in self-reported risky driving behaviour as measured by the BYNDS-Li. The most common risky driving behaviours included driving in excess of posted speed limits, and driving at high risk times such as at night and on weekends.Discussion and implicationsThe seven-factor structure of the BYNDS-Li supports arguments that culturally-valid measures should be operationalised in jurisdictions other than those in which they were developed (in the case of the BYNDS, Queensland, Australia). Moreover, systems thinking argues that interventions and efforts must be multi-sectoral and collaborative interventions. In the case of young driver road safety, these should be framed within the 4E’s of education, engineering, enforcement, and engagement.     

Risky riding behaviours among motorcyclists in Malaysia: A roadside survey

Motorcyclists are over-represented in fatal crashes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). In Malaysia, motorcyclists comprise about 60% of all fatalities in road crashes. However, the prevalence and determinants of risky riding behaviours have been rarely studied in the country. This study aims to investigate motorcycle-related risky riding behaviours at signalised intersections. A total of 72,377 observations were made during six days at six different signalised intersections in Terengganu, Malaysia. Four risky riding behaviours were observed together (i.e. helmet non-use, red-light running, mobile phone use, turn signal neglect) along with additional demographic and contextual factors. The most prevalent risky riding behaviour was turn signal neglect (29.7% of all observations), and the least prevalent was mobile phone while riding (0.2% of all observations). Four logistic regressions were fitted to predict the four risky riding behaviours using the demographic and contextual explanatory factors. The results suggest that helmet non-use increases among female riders, riders wearing industrial uniforms, carrying passengers, riding during the weekend, during off-peak hours, during clear weather, at T-junctions, on multi-lane roads, and on minor road approaches. Red light running increases among female riders, riders wearing industrial uniforms, carrying passengers, during clear weather, at T-junctions, on multi-lane roads, and on major road approaches. Mobile phone use increases among female riders, riders wearing industrial uniforms, carrying passengers, and at cross-junctions. Turn signal neglect increases among male riders, riders not wearing industrial uniforms, solo riders, on weekends, during off-peak hours, during clear weather, on single-lane roads, and on minor road approaches. The findings of this study have significant implications for the development of targeted countermeasures such as education programs and road policing.     

Sensitivity to reward and risky driving,risky decision making,and risky health behaviour: A literature review

Young driver road safety has persisted as a global problem for decades, despite copious and diverse intervention. Recently the influence in reward sensitivity, which refers to the individual’s personal sensitivity to rewards, has received attention in health-related research, including more generally through decision making in risky circumstances, and in risky driving behaviour specifically. As such, a literature review and synthesis of the literature regarding reward sensitivity in relation to risky driving, risky decision making, and risky health behaviour, with a focus on literature in which adolescents and young adults feature, is timely. Thirty-one papers were identified, and the literature revealed that young drivers with greater reward sensitivity engage in more risky driving behaviours including speeding, crashes and traffic violations; and that individuals with greater reward sensitivity engage in more risky decision making and other risky health-related behaviours (such as drinking and drug use). Adolescents and young adults exhibit heightened sensitivity to rewards in the presence of peers, which has considerable implications for young driver road safety as research consistently demonstrates that carrying peer passengers places all vehicle occupants at greater risk of being involved in a road crash. Consideration of the influence of reward sensitivity in young driver road safety, and other adolescent/young adult health-related safety, appears to be a promising avenue of intervention, with gain-framed messages more likely to be accepted by young drivers with greater reward sensitivity. Future research in jurisdictions other than Australia and Europe will increase our understanding of the influence of reward sensitivity, and exploration of the differential impacts of reward-responsiveness and fun-seeking specifically are warranted.     

“I would have lost the respect of my friends and family if they knew I had bent the road rules”: Parents,peers, and the perilous behaviour of young drivers

Young novice drivers are at considerable risk of injury on the road. Their behaviour appears vulnerable to the social influence of their parents and friends. The nature and mechanisms of parent and peer influence on young novice driver (16–25 years) behaviour was explored via small group interviews (n = 21) and two surveys (n1 = 1170, n2 = 390) to inform more effective young driver countermeasures. Parental and peer influence occurred in pre-Licence, Learner, and Provisional (intermediate) periods. Pre-Licence and unsupervised Learner drivers reported their parents were less likely to punish risky driving (e.g., speeding). These drivers were more likely to imitate their parents and reported their parents were also risky drivers. Young novice drivers who experienced or expected social punishments from peers, including ‘being told off’ for risky driving, reported less riskiness. Conversely drivers who experienced or expected social rewards such as being ‘cheered on’ by friends – who were also more risky drivers – reported more risky driving including crashes and offences. Interventions enhancing positive influence and curtailing negative influence may improve road safety outcomes not only for young novice drivers, but for all persons who share the road with them. Parent-specific interventions warrant further development and evaluation including: modelling safe driving behaviour by parents; active monitoring of driving during novice licensure; and sharing the family vehicle during the intermediate phase. Peer-targeted interventions including modelling of safe driving behaviour and attitudes; minimisation of social reinforcement and promotion of social sanctions for risky driving also need further development and evaluation.     

An observational study of restraint and helmet wearing behaviour in Malaysia

Unrestrained and unhelmeted occupants are at increased risk of severe injury or death in the event of a crash, and there is evidence that children, particularly in low and middle income countries, have low restraint and helmet wearing rates.Roadside observations of occupants of passing vehicles (7247 cars, vans and taxis and 2897 motorcycles) in nearside lanes were made at seven selected road sites located around the Klang Valley (greater Kuala Lumpur) area representing a variety of demographic locations.The findings revealed an overall low rate of seat-belt wearing in vehicles (front seat drivers: 44.6%; front seat adult passengers: 33.8%; front seat child passengers: 11.8%; rear seat adult passengers: 5.2%; and, rear seat child passengers: 5.8%). For motorcyclists, the majority of adult riders and pillions wore helmets (93.4% and 85.8%, respectively), however a substantial proportion (40%) did not fasten their helmet properly. Of children observed on motorcycles, only 30.5% wore helmets.This study shows low seat-belt and helmet wearing rates, despite enactment of legislation that requires all vehicle passengers to be restrained and for all motorcyclists to wear helmets. This was particularly evident for children (front and rear seating positions) and rear seat adult passengers. It is suggested there is a general lack of awareness of safety and the benefits of restraint/helmet use, and lack of adequate and appropriate enforcement. The implications of the findings are discussed in terms of promoting restraint/helmets use, enforcement of legislation and implementation of technologies to increase appropriate restraint/helmet use.     

Risky driving and lapses on the road: An exploration on self-regulatory dysfunction in Australian drivers

Self-regulatory ability has been linked to a) the tendency to engage in risky behaviours, and b) the ability to focus attention. This study investigated the relationships between metacognitions, emotion regulation difficulties, risky driving behaviours, and attentional lapses on the road, among an online sample of Australian drivers (N = 255). Firstly, group comparisons showed that although females reported greater self-regulatory dysfunction, males reported a higher frequency of risky driving behaviours. Alternatively, older drivers reported being better self-regulators, and less-frequent risky driving behaviours and attentional lapses on the road. Secondly, correlations demonstrated that metacognitions were associated with difficulties in regulating emotions, the engagement of risky driving behaviours, and the quantity of attentional lapses experienced on the road. Emotion regulation difficulties and risky driving behaviours were also shown to be positively related to the frequency of attentional lapses. Structural equation modelling confirmed a hierarchical model in predicting attentional lapses, with self-regulatory components representing higher-order factors over risky behavioural components. Finally, metacognitions demonstrated mediative effects toward the relationship between prior speeding experiences and future intentions to speed. This study has provided preliminary evidence for the application of metacognitions in the engagement of risky driving behaviours, and therefore the potential for informing future interventions.     

Reward versus punishment: Reinforcement sensitivity theory,young novice drivers’ perceived risk,and risky driving

One reason that young novice drivers remain statistically over-represented in road deaths is their rate of engagement in risky driving. Prominent contributing factors include driver’s age, sex, personality, risk perception, and their driving experience. This study applied reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST, specifically reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity) to predict young novice drivers’ perceived risk and self-reported risky driving engagement, while accounting for potential influences of age, sex, and driving experience. Drivers (N = 643, 490 females, 17–25 years, M = 20.02, SD = 2.32) who held an Australian driver’s license (P1, P2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey containing the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, and a measure of perceived risk of driving-related behaviours. A path analytic model derived from RST showed that perceived risk had the strongest negative association with reported risky driving engagement, followed by reward sensitivity (positive association). Respondent’s age and reward sensitivity were associated with perceived risk. Age, reward sensitivity, and perceived risk were associated with reported engagement in risky driving behaviours. Driver sex only had direct paths with RST variables, and through reward sensitivity, indirect paths to perceived risk, and reported risky driving. Neither punishment sensitivity nor driving experience contributed significantly to the model. Implications and applications of the model, and the unique set of variables examined, are discussed in relation to road safety interventions and driver training.     

Peer pressure and risk taking in young drivers’ speeding behavior

Although many countermeasures have been implemented in Europe, young drivers continue to have a high rate of involvement in car crashes. Their crash rate is higher in presence of peer passengers than when driving alone. Peer presence could contribute toward explaining this involvement, especially regarding speeding. Peers are known to often influence young drivers’ risky behaviors through proximal (direct and indirect active pressures) and distal (passive pressure) forms of intervention (Allen & Brown, 2008). This present study examined the effect of peer pressure and peer risk taking on the estimated speeding behavior of a scenario driver (ESBSD) as well as on the estimated speeding intention of a scenario driver (ESISD). The scenario driver was the main character in an online-scenario based questionnaire regarding speeding. The main character is a fictional young male depicted driving with his best friends in all the experimental scenarios in which the variables type of pressure and peer risk taking were manipulated. One hundred and eighty young French drivers (18–25 years, 50% men) took part in the study. The key findings were that (1) only direct and indirect active pressure, but not passive pressure, increased the ESBSD and that (2) high (vs. low) peer risk taking lead to a higher ESISD. However, no interaction between the pressure type and peer risk taking on ESBSD and ESISD was found. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

The influence of the frequency of cannabis use and of the five impulsivity traits on risky driving behaviors among young drivers

Concerns about road safety are at the forefront of discussions given the recent legalization of cannabis in many areas. Some studies have demonstrated that the frequency of cannabis use is a significant predictor of risky driving among young drivers. However, it is difficult to isolate the specific contribution of substance use from the influence of certain individual personality traits such impulsivity. Indeed, impulsivity traits (i.e., positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, sensation seeking) are also correlated with risky driving. The present study examined the effect of the frequency of cannabis use on risky driving while taking into account the effect of five impulsivity traits. A community sample of 209 young drivers (aged 17–25 years) completed self-report questionnaires about their road behaviors, their cannabis use, and their impulsivity traits. The results showed that the frequency of cannabis use was significantly associated with risky driving beyond the five impulsivity traits measured. Positive urgency was the only impulsivity trait that remained significantly associated with risky driving once all covariates were entered into the model. Moreover, the frequency of cannabis use acted as a mediator in the relationship between sensation seeking and risky driving.     

A statistical analysis of the correlates of compliance and defiance of seatbelt use

With the intent to frame policy recommendations for enhancing the state of road safety, this study employed a binary logit regression approach to examine the factors associated with the compliance/defiance of seatbelt use among drivers of different vehicle types in Islamabad. To this end, a questionnaire survey was conducted to collect data on the respondents’ seatbelt use, demographic characteristics, driving behavior, past penalization history, and perceived effectiveness of enforcement of seatbelt laws. The study results revealed that there is a lower likelihood of wearing seatbelt among male drivers, taxi drivers, drivers with a low level of education, drivers with no crash or injury history, drivers that violate speed limits and are never penalized on seatbelt violation, and drivers with no seatbelt reminder installed in their vehicles. Respondents who believed that there is low effectiveness of the enforcement of seatbelt laws had the highest impact on seatbelt use whereas, the presence of seatbelt reminders in the vehicle had the least impact on seatbelt use. The findings of this study suggest the need for awareness campaigns for taxi drivers with the intent to educate them about the potential benefits of using a seatbelt in the case of a crash event; improved awareness and strict vigilance of male drivers; strict enforcement of posted speed limits and seatbelt laws; legislation for the mandatory installation of a seatbelt in all the new vehicles, and organizing mass outreach campaigns to improve the overall safety environment. Most importantly and widely applicable to the developing world, this study necessitates a depiction of strong resolve on the part of government agencies regarding the strict enforcement of seatbelt laws. Given a substantial difference in the social, cultural, and legislative outfit of the developed and developing worlds, factors influencing the compliance/defiance of seatbelt use among drivers differ significantly. It is, therefore, important to explore the local contributory factors as the results are not necessarily transferable across the regions.     

Sensation seeking and risk taking in mortality salience

This study aimed to examine responses of sensation seekers concerning their tendency to take risks in driving in mortality salience. Ss completed the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking scale (SSS). Two weeks later Ss were divided into two groups; the experimental group, which was exposed to a terrifying video film dealing with consequences of risky driving and a control group with a nature video film. After watching the films, each participant was asked to complete a risk-taking inventory (RT), which referred to the extent of risk s/he would take while driving. High sensation seekers reported more risk taking in driving than sensation avoiders. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found between Mortality Salience and Sensation Seeking regarding risky driving, especially speeding. The implications of these findings on the well-established educational approaches based on terror are presented in the discussion.     

Examining U.S. drivers’ characteristics in relation to how frequently they engage in speeding on freeways

Speeding and speed-related crashes have consistently represented over 25% of all traffic fatalities over the past two decades. The severity of these speed-related incidents not only impact the drivers but all road users. Thus, characterizing drivers who speed, understanding their motivations, and identifying the types of risky driving behaviors associated with speeding play a critical role in developing, implementing, and sustaining effective countermeasures. Using a survey administered to a U.S. nationally representative sample (N = 2,930 licensed drivers aged 16 or older), this study develops a partial proportional odds model to examine differences in characteristics between types of speeders – frequent, occasional, and non-speeders – and explores characteristics and risk driving behaviors that are most associated with speeding behavior. Additionally, motivations for speeding are examined for drivers who frequently speed compared with those who occasionally speed. Results show speeders tended to engage in other unsafe driving behaviors, such as distracted, aggressive, unbelted, and alcohol-impaired driving. Among demographic and socio-economic variables examined in this study, drivers’ age was the greatest associated determinant. The association with engagement in red-light running, however, outweighed that with drivers’ age. Interestingly, the interaction between educational attainment and engagement in aggressive driving was also predictive of speeding behavior. For motivations for speeding, frequent speeders were more likely to report enjoying driving fast and disagreeing with speed limits compared with occasional speeders. The findings of this study are useful towards identifying the various characteristics and behaviors of drivers who engage in speeding, which can provide future insights into where effective countermeasures and prevention efforts should be focused.     

Risk compensation theory and bicycle helmets – Results from an experiment of cycling speed and short-term effects of habituation

It has been suggested that the safety benefits of bicycle helmets are limited by risk compensation. The current study contributes to explaining whether the potential safety effects of bicycle helmets are reduced by cyclists’ tendency to cycle faster when wearing them (as a result of risk compensation), and if this potential reduction can be associated with a change in perceived risk. A previous study (Fyhri & Phillips, 2013) showed that non-routine helmet users did not increase their speed immediately after being given a helmet to wear, while routine helmet users cycled more slowly. The current study tests whether the previously found reduction in speed in response to helmet removal – as an indirect indicator of risk compensation – could be established in non-routine helmet users, after a period of habituation while cycling with a helmet.We did this by conducting a randomized crossover trial, in which we used GPS-derived speed calculations and self-reported risk perception. To test the effect of habituation, we used a design where each participant took part in two rounds with a break between and each round having two trips. We collected the data in June 2015. Non-routine helmet users (N = 31) were recruited in the field (along cycle routes in Oslo), and through a sample drawn from the Falck National register of bicycle owners. In the first phase of the study, all participants were asked to complete a test route (2.4 km downhill) with and without a helmet. In the second phase of the experiment, conducted after 1.5–2 h, the same participants again completed the test route with and without a helmet. In the time between the first and second phases of the experiment, all participants were given helmets, and told to use them on a predefined bicycle route.Habituation to the helmet between the first and second phases of the experiment did not produce any decrease (with helmet removal) in speed, on top of the habituation that occurred while cycling down the hill (the order effect). Mean speed difference for cycling with/without a helmet before the break was −0.76 km/h, after the break this difference was 0.32 km/h; 95% CIs [−0.5, 2.9] and [−0.9, 1.5]. We argue that risk compensation is an unlikely effect of using a bicycle helmet, and probably cannot explain any adverse effects related to helmet legislation.     

Relationships between risk‐taking behaviour and subsequent risk perceptions

Research has suggested that engagement in patterns of risk‐taking behaviour might have a negative influence on the processing of risk information. However, risk‐takers display higher risk perceptions than non‐risk takers. This paradox might be resolved by removing the confounding effect of risk takers' increased exposure to risk. A longitudinal survey was administered to 255 motorists to examine the extent to which Time 1 (T1) self‐reported speeding behaviour predicted exposure‐free measures of Time 2 (T2) risk perceptions. Hierarchical regression analyses, controlling for demographics and T1 risk perceptions, showed that T1 speeding, and T1 to T2 speeding changes, both inversely predicted T2 risk perceptions. This suggests that successive increments in risk‐taking behaviour will lead to progressively lower increases in personal risk perception. Possible foundations and implications of this effect are discussed.     

The Relation Between Perceived Risk and Preventive Action: A Within-Subject Analysis of Perceived Driving Risk and Intentions to Wear Seatbelts

Intentions to wear seatbelts in 12 different driving situations were predicted from attitudes toward wearing seatbelts, subjective norms concerning seatbelt uses, and perceived driving risk. In a given driving situation, appropriate measures of attitudes and subjective norms both had significant effects on intentions to wear a seatbelt, whereas there was little relation between risk and intentions. Intentions across the 12 driving situations were significantly related to perceived driving risk, both for aggregate data and for a substantial portion of individual subjects. However, further analyses indicated that risk seemed to affect intentions indirectly through subjective norms and attitudes associated with seat-belt use. The results suggest that attempts to increase seatbelt use should target all relevant beliefs important in determining people's attitudes toward and subjective norms concerning seatbelt use, rather than just focusing upon making people aware of the risks associated with driving.     

Barriers and facilitators of bicycle helmet use among children and their parents

Despite the fact that bicycle helmet use protects against head injuries, helmet use rate is still low even in countries with high concern for traffic safety. Earlier research shows that helmet use declines with age and that helmet use is low especially among teenagers. The aim of the present study was to investigate barriers and facilitators of helmet use among primary and secondary school pupils and their parents. Identical surveys were conducted among school children (n = 235) and their parents (n = 106). Children’s and adults’ responses concerning cycling, helmet use, helmet ownership, risk assessment and barriers and facilitators were compared and separate regression analyses conducted. Helmet use rate was lower among pupils than adults and they scored higher in most of the barrier items. The results of regression analyses showed that among children, age, gender, barriers and facilitators predicted helmet use while among adults only frequency of cycling and barriers were related to helmet use. Among children, the strongest correlates of not using a helmet were the belief of not needing a helmet and wish to use a cap or a hat instead. Having a helmet wearing as a habit and feeling safer were the strongest correlates of using helmet. Among adults, the strongest correlates of not using a helmet were “helmet looks ridiculous”, “just going to short trip” and riding close to home while the strongest correlate of using a helmet was the habit of helmet use. It was concluded that targeting the barriers in helmet wearing campaigns might work better both among children and adults than emphasising the benefits at least among Norwegian child and adult cyclists.