WOMEN'S APPRAISALS OF SEXUAL-ASSAULT RISK IN DATING SITUATIONS

This study investigated how 165 female college students appraised their sexual-assault risk in a hypothetical dating situation. A 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment investigating the effects of male-dating-partner characteristics, story character beverage consumption, and perspective on women's risk appraisals was conducted. Multivariate analyses of variance were performed to test hypotheses regarding the feelings of the dating woman and the occurrence of sexual behaviors. Although the dating woman was rated as feeling more vulnerable on dates when alcohol was consumed, alcohol consumption did not influence ratings regarding the dating man committing nonconsensual sexual acts. Nonconsensual sexual behaviors were rated as more probable when the man had rape-congruent characteristics and when the participants were judging another woman rather than themselves. These findings suggest that women are partially accurate in making sexual-assault risk appraisals and thus may benefit from rape prevention education that specifically targets their inaccuracies.     

THE EFFICACY OF WOMEN'S RESISTANCE STRATEGIES IN RAPE SITUATIONS

The effectiveness of women's resistance strategies for reducing the severity of sexual abuse and physical injury during sexual assaults was analyzed in a variety of assault circumstances. Data were obtained from police reports and court testimonies of 274 women (96% White, 4% Black) who either were raped or avoided rape by subsequently incarcerated violent stranger rapists. Statistical analyses showed that particular resistance strategies were effective in specific situations. Women who fought back forcefully were more likely to avoid rape than women who did not fight back, regardles of whether a waepon was present. Forceful fighting resistance was related to increased physical injury when a weapon was present, but most physical injury was caused by nonlethal weapons. Women who screamed or fled when confronted with weapons experienced less severe sexual abuse. Increased physical injury was associated with pleading, crying, or reasoning indoors. Women who used drugs or alcohol experienced more severe sexual abuse and physical injury.     

CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS BY JAPANESE AND AMERICAN MOTHERS AND CHILDREN ABOUT PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS*

In this study we examined the possibility that causal inferences about performance may help explain the relatively superior achievement of Japanese students in mathematics. Data from mothers and children in Japan and the U.S. were examined for (a) attributions about causes of performance in math; (b) intra-family transmission of beliefs; and (c) effect of sex of child on attributions. Results showed that Japanese mothers and children emphasized effort, particularly for low performance, while American mothers and children emphasized ability. Beliefs of mothers and children were similar within country but not within family, suggesting that transmission is diffuse. Differences in attributions about performance of boys and girls did not appear in Japan and in the U.S. appeared for mothers only. The emphasis placed on attributions to effort seems to offer a highly motivating context for Japanese students.     

CROSS-SITUATIONAL SPECIFICITY IN MANAGERs' PERCEPTIONS OF SUBORDINATE PERFORMANCE, ATTRIBUTIONS, AND LEADER BEHAVIORS

Managers' perceptions of subordinates' performance, causes (attributions) of subordinates' performance, and the leader behaviors they employed toward subordinates were examined from the standpoint of cross-situational consistency versus cross-situational specificity. Cross-situational consistency would be indicated if managers' perceptions of performance, attributions, and leader behaviors were stable over different situations, whereas cross-situational specificity would be indicated if these same perceptions indicated reliable variation, as a function of situation. Empirical results for 377 Navy managers provided strong support for cross-situational specificity. Results are discussed in relation to prior research, generated by interactional theory on consistency versus specificity of responses across situations, and in relation to research and developmental needs in leadership, attribution theory, and performance evaluation.     

THE INFLUENCE OF SUBORDINATE AGE ON PERFORMANCE RATINGS AND CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS

Three issues were examined in this study relative to the role of subordinate age in performance evaluations. First, it was found that supervisors rated older subordinates lower than younger subordinates doing the same job. Second, differences between self-ratings of performance and supervisory ratings seemed to be a function of the subordinate's age. Third, a significant age × performance interaction was detected on ability attributions.     

WOMEN'S HERITAGE IN PSYCHOLOGY

The American Psychological Association's Centennial provides a unique opportunity to celebrate, preserve, and interpret women's heritage in the origins and development of psychology. This special issue documents women's contributions to, and the impact of feminist critiques on, the discipline of psychology and its organizations. The articles in this special issue demonstrate how psychological theories and practice, research methods, and interpretation of data are embedded in social, political, and historical contexts. Moreover, they document how feminist critiques have challenged traditional assumptions about knowledge and served as a catalyst for the transformation of psychological theories, methods, and practice—a transformation that has just begun.     

THE ROLE OF RESPONSE DELAY IN IMPROVING THE DISCRIMINATION PERFORMANCE OF AUTISTIC CHILDREN

This study investigated the influence of a response delay requirement on the discrimination performance of autistic children. In the context of a multiple baseline design with subsequent repeated reversals, two conditions were compared: a no-response-delay condition, where the child was allowed to make the target response immediately after presentation of the discriminative stimulus versus a response-delay condition, where the target response was permitted three seconds following the discriminative stimulus when the therapist would signal the child to respond. The results showed that the response-delay condition produced higher levels of correct responding than the no-response-delay condition. In addition, teachers in the research setting rated the response-delay procedure to be a practical and effective teaching technique that could be implemented in a classroom setting. The results were discussed in relation to the literature on impulsivity, and were interpreted as indicating that the response-delay procedure provides a valuable technique for teaching autistic children.     

A PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT APPROACH FOR IMPROVING DIRECT-CARE STAFF PERFORMANCE IN AN INSTITUTIONAL SETTING

The present study evaluated a participative management approach for increasing the frequency of interactions between institutional staff and severely/profoundly retarded residents. The participative management approach involved teaching staff how to use self-monitoring, standard setting, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement procedures. These procedures were then used by staff with minimal involvement of supervisory personnel. Although supervisors provided feedback and praise to staff for using these self-management behaviors, feedback and praise were never dispensed contingent on staff interactions with residents. Results indicated that during the participative management program there was an increase in staff interactions that were contingent on appropriate resident behavior. The increase in this type of staff interaction was accompanied by an increase in appropriate resident behavior. Follow-up data on both staff and resident behaviors, although showing moderating trends, suggested generally good maintenance of the initial behavior changes. Acceptability data suggested that staff were quite receptive to the program. The advantages of participative management procedures for improving staff performance in residential settings are discussed.     

SINGLE-SEX VERSUS MIXED-SEX CLASSES AND GENDER SCHEMATA IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Positive effects for women and girls of all-female schools have been proposed, although there is relatively little clear empirical support for these beneficial results. Much of the cited research is based on elite all-female institutions or on parochial schools. This study takes advantage of the change of a private, nonparochial school from all girls to both sexes. Longitudinal data from grades 2 through 12 were collected over the course of the academic year to study the results of this transition. Stereotyping declined with age and over time in both types of class-rooms. Girls in single-sex classrooms showed some tendency to be more stereotyped in their perceptions of mixed-sex classrooms than did the girls who were actually in that setting. Thus, none of the measures showed any significant increase over time in stereotyping among girls in mixed-sex classes. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN WOMEN'S SEXUAL ASSAULT EXPERIENCES BASED ON TACTICS USED BY THE PERPETRATOR

Only a few studies have examined the characteristics of sexual assault based on the tactics used by the perpetrator. In this study we compared the experiences of women who were forced to engage in vaginal, anal, or oral intercourse due to verbal coercion, physical force, or intoxication. Random-digit dialing was used to obtain a sample of 272 single African American and Caucasian women between the ages of 18 and 49 from the Detroit metropolitan area. Participants completed a computer-assisted self-interview that asked detailed questions about a past sexual assault and their reactions to it. Among the 139 women who were forced to engage in vaginal, anal, or oral intercourse, sexual assaults that involved physical force produced the most severe negative outcomes. Situations that involved the woman being too intoxicated to resist differed from others primarily in terms of how much alcohol the man and woman consumed. Although all types of sexual assault were perceived as being at least moderately serious, verbally coerced assaults were on average perceived as being least serious. These findings suggest that the perpetrators' tactics affect women's responses to sexual assault.     

ONGOING CONSULTATION AS A METHOD OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE OF STAFF MEMBERS IN A GROUP HOME

A model of ongoing consultation was implemented in a community group home for 8 adults with severe and profound mental retardation. Two consultants, highly experienced in working with people with mental retardation and in the procedures used in group homes, taught staff members to use a token reinforcement system, to engage the adults in a variety of activities, and to improve the content and style of the staff members' interactions with the adults. The consultants taught skills to 9 staff members through brief mini-workshops, direct observation of the staff members' use of the skills during regular activities in the group home, and individual verbal feedback regarding a staff member's performance of the skills. Evaluation of the ongoing consultation process by the 2 consultants showed it to be effective in improving the performance of the staff members and in changing the behaviors of the adults who lived in the home. Continued implementation of the process, however, appeared to be necessary for the behavior changes of staff members to be maintained at high levels.     

WOMEN'S GROWING ROLE IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN

This paper discusses the ongoing changes in socio-cultural values regarding women in business and industrial infrastructure accruing from the emerging womenpower in contemporary Japan. Women are becoming an important part of corporate culture. Their role in political life is also increasing. The mass media programmes are frequently targeted to female audiences. In contrast, the fate of men, especially that of husbands, seems to be getting increasingly obscure in contemporary Japanese society. From the perspective of work organizations, a true picture of ongoing changes in socio-cultural values regarding women and in the infrastructure accrued from the emerging womenpower in Japan deserves future research attention.     

THE EFFECTS OF FORM TRAINING ON FOUL‐SHOOTING PERFORMANCE IN MEMBERS OF A WOMEN'S COLLEGE BASKETBALL TEAM

The effects of instruction and feedback in proper form on foul‐shooting performance was evaluated in 3 players of a women's NCAA Division II college basketball team. Players showed an increase in percentage of shots made and in correct form compared to baseline shooting without instruction or feedback. All players reached criterion within seven training sessions. The results suggest that training proper form is an effective strategy for improving foul‐shooting performance.     

ATTRIBUTIONS TO FAILURE: THE EFFECTS OF EFFORT,ABILITY, AND LEARNING STRATEGY USE ON PERCEPTIONS OF FUTURE GOALS AND EMOTIONAL RESPONSES

This study sought to examine college students' attributions to failure in biology. Through the use of scenarios, we were interested in determining how males and females viewed the attributions of ability, effort, and learning strategy use. A 3 (attribution: ability, effort, strategies) 2 2 (scenario gender) 2 2 (respondent gender) factorial design was used to analyze four future goal statements and four emotional response statements. Results indicated a significant effect for attribution for three of the four future goal items, with participants believing most strongly that future goals could be met if the scenario student used the appropriate strategies. There was also a significant effect for attribution for all four of the emotional response items, with participants having the strongest emotional reaction when the attribution was to effort. Respondent gender interacted with attribution only on one emotional response item. Collectively these results indicate differences in patterns of responses between future goal and emotional items. Moreover,these results are important for learning-to-learn courses designed to teach effective strategy use.     

SOCIAL PHOBIA: CONTROL PROCESSES IN ANXIETY-PROVOKING SITUATIONS

Control of anxiety-related emotions in anxiety-provoking situations was qualitatively examined for 21 social phobic clients before treatment. A model illustrating the functional coherence of the control processes across those situations was constructed, based on narratives of problematic situations. Results indicated that the model reflects fundamental processes in social phobia, possibly resulting from early attachment. In addition, three groups were identified that differed in respect to control-activity. These results indicate that the differences reflect surface variation of processing, resulting from development and interaction in adolescence and adulthood. Both the coherence and the variation should be taken into account when dealing with and developing treatment procedures for social phobics.     

ANALYSIS OF THE MISSING PART IN PROBLEM SITUATIONS

The so-called Ring Problem was presented in writing to 127 students, of which half were given additional instructions to look for a missing instrumental part and try to replace it with the objects at hand. The added instructions increased the number of solutions within a 5-min. period. The results are taken to indicate the importance of determining the functional characteristics of the missing part in a practical problem situation.     

OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE PERFORMANCE AS INFLUENCED BY DRUG-INDUCED VARIATIONS IN ACTIVATION LEVEL

Performance was measured by seven sensorimotor and perceptual tests given to 30 students in six successive trials, spread over five hours, before and after the intake of either 15 mg dexamphetamine, zoo mg Pentobarbitone, or a placebo. Subjective performance, level of aspiration, wakefulness, and mood were measured by a scaling method. A close agreement was found between the amount of objective and subjective improvement following dexamphetamine, whereas the objective impairment induced by Pentobarbitone was not reflected in the subjective measures. These results were examined in relation to the other indices of activation.