分析数集和构图求解关系应用题的效果

1　问题的提出　　关系应用题是以比较、倍数和分数等数集关系为题材的问题。一道标准的关系应用题均有三种数集 :标准集、比较集和关系集 (差集、倍数集或分数集 )。根据未知数集的类型又可以把关系应用题分为标准集未知题、比较集未知题和关系集未知题。大量实验表明标准集未知题的解题错误率高于比较集未知题的解题错误率[1] ,对于解题熟练者也是如此。有些人认为 ,成熟的解题者表征关系型应用题时是对数集及其关系的表征[2 ] 。据此 ,如果要求学生在解题时分析应用题中的数集 ,则能促进问题表征。这是一种语义分析的观点。从非语义分析…     

儿童解决算术应用题认知加工过程及比较图式形成的实验研究

通过对100名5-9岁儿童解比较题认知加工过程的实验研究,结果表明:1.儿童解比较题认知加工可划分为三级水平。2.问题表征分为动作、表象、符号三种方式,它与数学知识结构建立联系实现数学表征转换,能否实现转换影响算法选择,解题策略具有加性和减性两种类型,存在实物匹配、计数和加法表三个水平。3.比较图式整合为部总关系图式,其水平依照动作、表象、思维顺序发展,结构依照求差集、求比较集、求标准集顺序扩大。4.儿童解比较题困难是因为问题缺少操作动词和儿童不能实现相应的数学表征转换。     

加减文字题解决研究概述

加减文字题指应用加减法运算解答的简单数学应用题。基本类型有合并题、变化题和比较题。人们主要采用四种方法研究解题过程：解答问题、回忆和构造问题、建立计算机模型和眼动记录。过去研究发现语义类型、年龄、难以理解的词句、问题陈述的简约性、题材个人化、问题陈述结构、数量大小、未知集类型和解答问题的方式等因素显著影响解题过程。人们对解题过程提出了两种理论模型,一是数学知识应用模型,一是语言理解模型     

4—8岁儿童解决算术应用题认知加工过程的实验研究(Ⅱ)

本研究采用个别交谈和口语分析技术,对100名4─8岁儿童解决合并题的认知加工过程进行了探讨.结果表明:儿童解决合并题的认知加工过程可以划分出三个水平,其认知加工图式有两种:合并图式和部总关系推理图式;两种图式对问题的加工方式不同,反映出儿童对加减法概念的理解程度和发展水平.     

前瞻记忆的年老化效应:前瞻成分和回溯成分的调节作用

关注事件性前瞻记忆的年老化,采用基于双重任务的实验室研究范式,实验一控制线索与意向的关联性和线索的显著性操纵概念驱动加工和数据驱动加工过程,比较前瞻记忆的前瞻成分和回溯成分的年老化影响;实验二检验前瞻成分在前瞻记忆年老化中的作用。结果显示,线索与意向的关联性和线索与背景的区别性作为概念驱动加工和数据驱动加工的重要表现形式可以显著地促进老年人的前瞻记忆水平,前瞻记忆年老化主要存在于前瞻记忆的前瞻成分;前瞻成分较高的注意资源需求导致前瞻记忆的年龄差异主要受任务的认知需求水平所影响,当前瞻记忆是相对自动加工时,年龄差异小;当任务需要较多的控制加工时,年龄差异相对较大。本研究进一步揭示了导致前瞻记忆年龄差异的原因。     

顿悟与问题表征的转变

阐述了解决残缺棋盘问题的顿悟过程。该实验的结果证明,顿悟过程中需要发现一种正确的问题表征,即对等性问题空间,为了发现这一表征,被试必须使问题表征从“铺试问题空间”转变为“元水平的问题空间”．被试在这两个空间中进行搜索时,必须有很强的限制,使搜索成为有高度选择性的搜索,才能最终在元水平问题空间中发现正确的表征。本研究还发现,被试的搜索并不总是知觉驱动的,有时是概念驱动的,而且后者的迁移性更高。     

4～5岁儿童一一对应任务中的比例效应

一一对应和数量比较是幼儿数概念发展的两个重要方面。在本研究中．40名4岁和39名5岁的儿童分别完成了不同比例数量的一一对应任务和数量比较任务。结果表明：（1）两种实验任务下均出现比例效应．说明儿童在解决一一对应问题时,仍然用数量比较的方法来进行判断;（2）任务类型的主效应显著,一一对应任务下的正确率要显著低于数量比较任务下的正确率;（3）知觉线索更多地影响数量比较任务。     

概念及概念结构研究新进展

近来有关归类和概念结构的研究与理论出现了两个方面的转变。第一个方面是从概念定义属性的假设 (经典观 )到概念表征属性的观点 (概率观 ) ;第二个方面是从概念以相似性组织的观点到概念围绕理论而组织的观点。本文综合概述了基于相似性和理论驱动的归类理论。     

类比归纳的相似性效应和概念效应比较

该文用两个实验比较了类比归纳中的相似性效应和概念效应。预备实验首先检验了实验所使用的人工概念符号的效度。结果显示,研究采用的人工符号能够按照实验要求准确控制被试对概念关系和相似性的估计。预备实验还显示,在只有相似性或概念信息的条件下,人们更加信任概念信息。在正式实验中,相似性信息和概念信息同时呈现,结果显示,在概念信息明确的时候,人会忽略相似性信息;但在相似性信息和明确的时候,人不会忽略概念信息,因此,文章得出结论：概念是类比归纳的基本构成要素。     

基于熟悉性的项目间语义关系再认

在项目间语义关系的熟悉性研究中, 一个关键问题是熟悉性效应依赖于哪种信息的加工, 关系概念还是抽象结构?研究通过两个实验, 借助无线索回忆再认范式(the recognition without cued recall paradigm, 简称RWCR范式)和四词类比材料, 采用混合设计, 直接分离与比较关系概念和抽象结构的加工对RWCR效应的影响。结果发现, 关系概念作为测验线索能够引发显著RWCR效应, 但仅仅学习关系概念却不能;只有学习关系概念的结构化材料时, 才能引发显著RWCR效应。该结果表明, 项目间语义关系的熟悉性过程与结构信息有关。     

Insight problems revisited: The influence of cognitive styles and experience on creative problem solving

The joint influence of cognitive style and prior experience on creative problem solving was examined using the Two‐String and the Hatrack insight problems. The study involved 44 male and 43 female Norwegian students aged 17 to 21 years. In three out of four cases the results supported the hypothesis that there is a joint effect between assimilative and explorative strategy preferences and degree of experience in their influence on performance. Explorers mainly performed better when prior experience was low (high task novelty) and assimilators mainly performed better when prior experience was high (low novelty). However, this pattern was reversed for females on the Hatrack problem. There was also a significant curvilinear relationship between experience and the composite problem‐solving score. Implications for theories on the role of experience in creative problem solving as well as limitations of this study are discussed.     

Solving Everyday Problems Creatively: The Role of Problem Construction and Personality Type

Problem construction has been determined to be an important process contributing to creative problem solving. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether problem construction plays a role in how individuals interpret ambiguous, ill-defined problems in a way that fits with their personality. We also hypothesized that solution quality and originality would be related not only to problem construction ability but also to the degree to which the solution fits the personality of the individual. Students who participated in this study (N = 195) were asked to complete measures to identify personality types, a measure of problem construction ability, and a problem-solving exercise. Solutions were rated for fit of the solution to the personality, quality, and originality. Results suggest that problem construction ability is positively related to the fit of the solution to the personality type, and that solution quality and originality are related to both problem construction and solution fit. Implications of the role of problem construction in solving everyday problems are discussed.     

不同概化的问题原型对问题归类和解决的影响

探讨原理学习过程中形成不同概化程度／问题原型对解决不同适宜程度问题的影响。实验1探讨个体形成不同概化程度问题原型对解决表面内容不同适宜程度的问题的效果;实验2探讨形成不同概化程度问题原型的被试解决问题的信息加工方式与机制;实验3进一步探讨形成不同概化程度问题原型的个体解决复杂问题的效果与机制。结果表明：(1)形成概化程度较高的问题原型有利于个体对表面内容不适宜题目的解答;(2)形成概化程度较高问题原型的被试在解答适宜或不适宜问题时均能迅速激活问题原型而通达原理图式,因此,更多地采用图式的方法解决问题;(3)形成概化程度较高的问题原型会有助于被试排除题目的无关信息,正确进行解答。     

The Nature and Origin of Rational Errors in Arithmetic Thinking: Induction from Examples and Prior Knowledge

Students systematically and deliberately apply rule-based but erroneous algorithms to solving unfamiliar arithmetic problems. These algorithms result in erroneous solutions termed rational errors. Computationally, students' erroneous algorithms can be represented by perturbations or bugs in otherwise correct arithmetic algorithms (Brown & VanLehn, 1980; Langley & Ohilson, 1984; VanLehn, 1983, 1986, 1990; Young S O'Sheo, 1981). Bugs are useful for describing how rational errors occur but bugs are not sufficient for explaining their origin. A possible explanation for this is that rational errors are the result of incorrect induction from examples. This prediction is termed the “induction hypothesis” (VanLehn, 1986). The purpose of the present study was to: (a) expand on post formulations of the induction hypothesis, and (b) use a new methodology to test the induction hypothesis more carefully than has been done previously. The first step involved teaching participants a new number system called NewAbacus, a written modification of the abacus system. The second step consisted of dividing them into different groups, where each individual received an example of only one port of the NewAbacus addition algorithm. During the third and final step, participants were instructed to solve both familiar and unfamiliar types of addition problems in NewAbacus. The induction hypothesis was supported by using both empirical and computational investigations.     

Goal specificity and knowledge acquisition in statistics problem solving: Evidence for attentional focus

Solving training problems with nonspecific goals (NG; i.e., solving for all possible unknown values) often results in better transfer than solving training problems with standard goals (SG; i.e., solving for one particular unknown value). In this study, we evaluated an attentional focus explanation of the goal specificity effect. According to the attentional focus view, solving NG problems causes attention to be directed to local relations among successive problem states, whereas solving SG problems causes attention to be directed to relations between the various problem states and the goal state. Attention to the former is thought to enhance structural knowledge about the problem domain and thus promote transfer. Results supported this view because structurally different transfer problems were solved faster following NG training than following SG training. Moreover, structural knowledge representations revealed more links depicting local relations following NG training and more links to the training goal following SG training. As predicted, these effects were obtained only by domain novices.     

Some suggestions for modifying the incremental influence of organizational members

The purpose of this series of three studies was to examine ways of modifying incremental influence. The first was an experimental laboratory study involving manipulation of interpersonal attraction via perceptions of similarity. Results from Study I strongly supported the hypothesis that referent power can be changed as a function of interpersonal attraction. Study II reports on an organizational simulation and provides further evidence for the linkage between interpersonal attraction and referent power. This study also tested the hypothesis that satisfaction covaries with self-perceived referent power. The data, while supporting the hypothesis, expanded the association of satisfaction to the other power bases, i.e., expert, reward, coercive, and legitimate. The final study examined power changes as a function of organization development interventions in a field setting. The findings show that not only was referent power enhanced, as hypothesized, but that other power bases also changed. In addition, hypotheses previously tested in Studies I and II received further confirmation in Study III. The overall pattern of results suggests that referent power can be altered by affecting the interpersonal attraction of group members. Implications for organizational intervention and practice are discussed, and some possible modifications to the theoretical framework of power are advanced.     

REFERENT SELECTION IN DETERMINING EQUITY PERCEPTIONS: DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS ON BEHAVIORAL AND ATTITUDINAL OUTCOMES

The concept of differential equity allows individuals to have different perceptions of equity depending on the pay referent used. Different pay referents should result in different tactics to reduce inequities. To test this hypothesis, equity perceptions with respect to seven different referents were compared as to their relationship to pay satisfaction, intent to remain with a company, and frequency of extra-role behavior. Findings suggest that the various types of inequity relate differentially to each of the three outcome variables.     

顿悟:是进程监控还是表征转换

当前解释顿悟问题解决机制的理论主要有表征转换理论和进程监控理论。进程监控理论主要解释了顿悟问题为什么困难,但事实上它并没有说明顿悟问题为什么会解决,只回答了在什么情况下被试才会寻求其他的方法,而且它把顿悟问题解决的一般过程看成是同常规问题解决方法相同的过程。而表征转换理论主要解释了顿悟是如何获得的——顿悟的获得是由于问题解决者对问题的表征实现了正确的转变,但它并没有解释表征什么时候、怎么样才能转变?顿悟问题的解决经历了三个认知加工阶段,顿悟问题的解决需要在消除定势情况下激活正确的启发信息(线索),并验证了顿悟问题的原型激活和关键启发信息理论假说。     

How do objective and subjective career success interrelate over time?

The present research is concerned with the direction of influence between objective and subjective career success. We conducted a prospective longitudinal study with five waves of measurement that covered a time span of 10 years. Participants were professionals working in different occupational fields (N=1,336). We modelled the changes in objective success (income, hierarchical position), in other‐referent subjective success (subjective success as compared to a reference group), and in self‐referent subjective success (job satisfaction) by means of latent growth curve analysis. Objective success influenced both the initial level and the growth of other‐referent subjective success, but it had no influence on job satisfaction. Most importantly, both measures of subjective success and both their initial levels and their changes had strong influences on the growth of objective success. We conclude that the ‘objective success influences subjective success’ relationship is smaller than might be expected, whereas the ‘subjective success influences objective success’ relationship is larger than might be expected.     

公平感社会比较的参照对象选择研究述评

员工的公平感取决于社会比较的参照对象, 分析参照对象选择的规律是理解公平感形成机制的核心问题。首先对公平感社会比较参照对象的种类和特征、参照对象选择的稳定性等进行了介绍, 然后分析了影响参照对象选择的动机、个人、环境和认知因素, 最后重点分析了当前研究中存在的问题, 比如采用问卷无法揭示员工参照对象选择真实的心理过程, 并且提出在以后的研究中采用质的研究方法, 探讨中国组织员工群体化参照对象等新思路。