Attitudes of Master's‐Level Counseling Students Toward Gay Men and Lesbians

The authors examined variables that could be predictive of attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. A survey was conducted with 132 counselors‐in‐training in a program accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (2001). Participants attended a medium‐size, regional university in the southwestern portion of the United States. Religiosity, political views, and previous experience with lesbians were the strongest predictors of attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Future research ideas and implications for counselor education programs are discussed.     

Social and Cultural Sensitivity in Group-Specific HIV and AIDS Programming

In this article the authors encourage counselors and other human development professionals to provide HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) prevention programming that is sensitive to the social and cultural contexts of the specific group(s) addressed. The focus is on four groups that have been both the target for societal oppression and dramatically affected by the HIV and AIDS epidemic: women, gay and bisexual men, African Americans, and Latinos. First, information is provided to help professionals become more aware of the social and cultural contexts of behavior related to HIV and AIDS prevention in the four groups named. Second, four recommendations are made to assist professionals to sensitively apply that awareness to the planning and implementing of HIV and AIDS prevention programming. Four exemplar programs illustrate the implementation of these recommendations.     

Confidentiality Limits With Clients Who Have HIV: A Review of Ethical and Legal Guidelines and Professional Policies

The publication of the first counseling articles addressing confidentiality limits of clients who have HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and continue to be sexually active with an uninformed partner occurred 4 years ago. Since that time, dialogue about whether a helping professional may ethically and legally breach confidentiality has not resolved the dilemma but instead has created more questions and controversy for counselors. In this article the authors highlight the barrage of ethical issues regarding HIV and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AlDS), review ethical and legal guidelines pertaining to HIV and AIDS and confidentiality, summarize HIV and AIDS confidentiality policies of the major helping professional organizations, articulate questions that contribute to the confidentiality dilemmas, and challenge the American Counseling Association (ACA), formerly the American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD), to develop specific guidelines for counselors.     

Counseling Gay Men with AIDS: Human Dimensions

As the incidence of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) becomes more widespread, individuals with AIDS will present themselves for counseling in both public and private settings, and counselors will need to become familiar with the psychological manifestations of the AIDS virus. This article provides case material that demonstrates the emotional responses of gay men to AIDS. Specifically, denial, anger, rage, guilt, and shame are discussed with an emphasis on the human dimensions of AIDS.     

Ethical Guidelines for Counselors When Working With Clients With Terminal Illness Requesting Physician Aid in Dying

In 2005, the American Counseling Association (ACA) introduced a new ethical standard for counselors working with clients with terminal illness who are considering hastened death options. The authors’ purpose is to inform counselors of the Death With Dignity Act and explore relevant ethical guidelines in the ACA Code of Ethics ( ACA, 2005 ).     

The Gay and Lesbian Affirmative Development (GLAD) Model: Facilitating Positive Gay Identity Development

The Gay and Lesbian Affirmative Development (GLAD) model, a proactive, gay‐affirmative counseling approach, is proposed Parallels are drawn between Cass's (1979) Homosexual Identity Formation model and Ivey's (1990) cognitive‐behavioral Developmental Counseling Therapy model to help counselors assess and facilitate gay and lesbian clients' cognitive development related to the formation of a positive sexual orientation identity.     

Spiritual Experiences of Gay Men and Lesbians

The spiritual and religious lives of gay men and lesbians are often misunderstood by counselors who have too little information about this rich and diverse population. This article offers an explication of the challenges facing gay persons, a model that will be useful in counseling sessions, and a list of resources for further information.     

Human lmmunodeficiency Virus Infection and the Gay Community: Counseling and Clinical Issues

The gay community has been and continues to be disproportionately affected by the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Need for risk-reduction education, mental health service provision, and assistance in grieving the ongoing loss of loved ones continues to exist among members of the gay community. Clinicians who work with gay clients should be aware of the critical issues confronting gay men who are at risk for infection, those who may already be infected with HIV, and their loved ones. This article highlights critical issues in introducing prevention in therapy and counseling, in supporting asymptomatic seropositive gay men and gay men with AIDS-related complex (ARC) and AIDS in their attempts to cope, and in assisting in the grieving process for those who have lost loved ones to AIDS-related illnesses.     

Victim-Blaming Tendency Toward People With AIDS Among College Students

Abstract

The victim-blaming tendency toward people with AIDS was examined in relation to gender, fraternity–sorority affiliation, classification (freshmen vs. others), religion (Catholic vs. others), and academic major (business college vs. others) in a survey of 818 students at a midwestern state university in the United States. Desired social distance from gay men and lesbians, the intervening variable in these relations, significantly mediated the indirect effect of fraternity–sorority affiliation, classification, and gender on the victim-blaming tendency. Gender and desired social distance were found to be significant direct determinants of the victim-blaming tendency toward people with AIDS. The study suggests that attitudes toward gay men and lesbians must change if attitudes toward people with AIDS are to change.     

For Whom is this World Just?: Sexual Orientation and AIDS

The "just world" hypothesis has been used to explain victim blaming, or the attributions that people have for why a person has been victimized. Based on some of the premises of the just world hypothesis it was predicted that people would be more likely to attribute blame to a gay man with AIDS than they would to a heterosexual man with AIDS. From a sample of 79 undergraduate students it was found that a gay man was given more personal blame for contracting AIDS than a heterosexual man. Furthermore, the more intolerant people were towards gay men and the more fearful they were of contact with AIDS, the more likely they were to blame the gay man for contracting AIDS. Although preliminary, these results indicate the usefulness of the just world hypothesis for understanding the stigmatization of people with AIDS.     

Behavioral and Attitudinal Correlates of Masculinity: A National Survey of Male Counselors

In this study the authors investigated the relationship between the Male Role Norm Scales (MRNS; Thompson & Pleck, 1987) and gender-related attitudes and behaviors in a sample of 367 male counselors drawn from American Counseling Association (ACA), formerly the American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD), members. Results indicated that this group of men did not, in general, endorse traditional male roles as measured by the MRNS. When a degree of affiliation with these roles was found, however, it was predictive of violence proneness, intimacy style, and degree of perceived similarity to father. Implications for training and counseling are discussed.     

“Morals,” medicine,and the AIDS epidemic

It is the assumption of this article that when the etiology of an illness is framed in a moral language and the illness in question affects religiously stigmatized and legally proscribed minorities, the victims of the illness will be blamed for their ill health. Evidence is given of the connection between moralizing about a medical issue and the response of the medical establishment. The role of religion in the definition and interpretation of AIDS is emphasized as well as its effects on gay people and gay life. A political analysis of AIDS and its assumed causes is also given. These homophobic explanations are viewed as attempts to disenfranchise and discredit gay life further. Responsibility for containing AIDS is discussed in the context of brokenness between and among gay people. Healing is given as a necessary solution.The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Terrance Thornton, M.A., Chris Poslock, and Rodger McFarlane, Executive Director of the Gay Men's Health Crisis, Inc., to the development of this article.     

Victim-blaming tendency toward people with AIDS among college students.

The victim-blaming tendency toward people with AIDS was examined in relation to gender, fraternity-sorority affiliation, classification (freshmen vs. others), religion (Catholic vs. others), and academic major (business college vs. others) in a survey of 818 students at a midwestern state university in the United States. Desired social distance from gay men and lesbians, the intervening variable in these relations, significantly mediated the indirect effect of fraternity-sorority affiliation, classification, and gender on the victim-blaming tendency. Gender and desired social distance were found to be significant direct determinants of the victim-blaming tendency toward people with AIDS. The study suggests that attitudes toward gay men and lesbians must change if attitudes toward people with AIDS are to change.     

Career Counseling with Gay Men: Issues and Recommendations for Research

This article reviews the available literature on career issues facing gay men, identifies potentially crucial issues confronting practicing career counselors, and suggests how to work with gay men regarding career issues. Suggestions for future research are also presented.     

A short-term group treatment model for gay male survivors of childhood sexual abuse living with HIV/AIDS

HIV-positive gay male survivors of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) face three layers of trauma: childhood abuse, homophobic oppression, and HIV/AIDS. Additionally, CSA has been shown to increase HIV risk behavior among gay men, and the trauma of HIV infection often parallels the experience of CSA. Effective coping strategies are particularly important for people living with HIV/AIDS in order to adapt to physical, psychological, and social implications of infection. However, coping strategies once adaptive in the context of CSA may become maladaptive in adulthood. Interventions are needed that enhance coping and address CSA for survivors living with HIV/AIDS to protect their own health and to prevent new transmissions. This article presents a group model found to be efficacious for treating gay male survivors of CSA living with HIV/AIDS.     

Group psychotherapy with the aging gay male: Treatment of choice

This article summarizes many issues facing gay men as they age. Aging for gay men is a complex phenomenon involving identity, self-esteem, internalized homophobia, stereotypes about older gay men, and the paucity of positive gay male images or role models to help direct their development. In this article, I will attempt to illuminate some of the complex variables of aging, as well as illustrate through case examples that group psychotherapy is a particularly helpful forum for skills development for middle age and older gay men. The themes covered include: 1) commitment struggles—especially anxiety management and conflict resolution, 2) self-esteem regulation, 3) projections and internalizations, 4) capacity for intimacy, and 5) unresolved grief and loss due to the impact of AIDS: Alone vs. Lonely.     

A Preliminary Examination of Sexual Orientation as a Social Vulnerability for Experiencing HIV/AIDS-related Stigma

This investigation is a preliminary examination of sexual orientation as a social vulnerability for experiencing HIV/AIDS-related stigma, specifically concerns about disclosure and public attitudes. Participants were 36 heterosexual men and 82 gay men with HIV/AIDS. Consistent with prediction, a heterosexual sexual orientation was significantly associated with HIV/AIDS disclosure concerns. This effect was evident after controlling for various demographic variables, CD4 T-cell count, time since HIV diagnosis, self-esteem, and coping styles. Also, as predicted, similar levels of enacted stigma were evident regardless of sexual orientation. Further work is needed to understand the process of HIV/AIDS disclosure for heterosexual men with this illness and to differentiate the experience of HIV/AIDS-related stigma among gay and straight men with HIV/AIDS.     

The effects of social category norms and stereotypes on explanations for intergroup differences

A 2-stage model of the construction of explanations for differences between groups is presented. Category norms affect which of 2 groups becomes "the effect to be explained," and stereotypes shape attributions about that group. In 3 experiments, 288 participants wrote explanations for differences between gay and straight men. Explanations focused on gay men who were also judged to have more mutable attributes. However, these effects were not correlated. Participants focused explanations on straight men when explicitly instructed to do so (Experiment 1). Explanations focused on both groups equally when the gay men constituted the numerically larger sample, when gay men were more typical of the overarching category (i.e., people with AIDS) than straight men, or when more straight men were described as performing the behavior (Experiment 2). Stereotype-consistent information prompted more essentialist references and fewer reconstructive references to gay men than did stereotype-inconsistent information (Experiment 3). The relevance of this model for theories of norms, stereotypes, and for the conduct of social science is discussed.     

Counseling to End an Epidemic: Revisiting the Ethics of HIV/AIDS

In the decades since HIV/AIDS was first identified, medical discoveries have advanced prevention and treatment, and shifting demographics have changed the face of the illness. Despite these changes, the counseling literature on HIV/AIDS and its ethical implications for counselors have remained limited and stagnant. Whereas past discussions have focused primarily on issues of confidentiality, this article addresses multiple ethical implications of HIV/AIDS to reflect current knowledge about the illness and its effects on clients.     

Women and AIDS: Implications for Counseling

Women's concerns regarding AIDS have been ignored or minimized by most writers and AIDS educators. Although women may share many similarities with men in their reactions to AIDS, they have unique concerns that must be recognized. Understanding these concerns is essential for counselors in order to give quality care to women at risk for infection. This article describes women at risk and offers suggestions for counselors in working with such women.