THE PERILS OF PARTICIPATION: EFFECTS OF CHOICE OF TRAINING ON TRAINEE MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

This study presents an empirical test of the effects of trainee choice of training on subsequent motivation and learning. 207 trainees were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) no choice of training; (b) choice of training–but choice not received; (c) choice of training–with choice received. A pilot study was used to create a unique training context whereby trainees could be differentiated on the three conditions of choice, while all ultimately received the identical training module. Results indicated that, after controlling for cognitive ability, those trainees having a choice of training did have greater motivation to learn, provided they were ultimately given the training of their choice. On the other hand, trainees allowed to choose but whose choice was not the training module subsequently delivered were less motivated and learned less than those not asked to participate in the choice of training at all. These findings suggest that, in an organizational training context, there may be some "perils of participation." Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

A FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE VALUE OF CHOICE: CONTROLLING FOR ILLUSORY DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI AND EVALUATING THE EFFECTS OF LESS PREFERRED ITEMS

We sought to address limitations of prior research that has isolated choice as an independent variable. Children's preferences for the opportunity to choose were evaluated in a concurrent‐chains arrangement in which identical consequences were available in choice and no‐choice conditions. Results demonstrated that preference for choice, in and of itself, was (a) evident in children, (b) not controlled by illusory discriminative stimuli such as the amount from which to choose, and (c) generally unaffected by less preferred and potentially unimportant consequences.     

THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF UNCERTAINTY

Problem solving tasks of different informational content were presented for free choice, and the attractiveness of the situation was measured by repeated ratings. The hypothesis of an inverted U-shaped relationship between uncertainty and attractiveness of the situation was supported. The value of rating as a method for this purpose, and some results indicating the importance of stimulus patterning are discussed.     

创业风险决策框架效应特征研究

以创业风险决策为背景,以从事管理类工作的白领员工为被试,探讨了框架效应的表现特征。结果表明随着损益值的增加人们倾向保守,而随着概率水平的增加而偏好冒险,创业倾向高的个体更倾向冒险。框架效应并不出现在所有输赢描述决策情境中,它只出现在缺乏主导社会线索的模糊情况下。     

NONCONTINGENT PRESENTATION OF ATTENTION AND ALTERNATIVE STIMULI IN THE TREATMENT OF ATTENTION-MAINTAINED DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR

Previous research has demonstrated that destructive behavior may be reduced through noncontingent presentation of attention when attention is identified as the stimulus responsible for behavioral maintenance. Because it may not always be possible to deliver attention in all situations, we examined the extent to which alternative stimuli that have been identified through a choice assessment would substitute for attention (the functional analysis—based reinforcer) in a noncontingent reinforcement procedure. Prior to treatment, functional analyses demonstrated that the destructive behavior of 2 clients with mental retardation was maintained by adult attention. Next, a stimulus choice assessment identified highly preferred tangible items for the 2 clients. Finally, we compared the effectiveness of two noncontingent reinforcement procedures: continuous noncontingent access to attention and continuous noncontingent access to the tangible item identified in the choice assessment. For both clients, these noncontingent reinforcement procedures reduced destructive behavior. The results are discussed in terms of the clinical implications for the treatment of destructive behavior using functional and alternative stimuli.     

影响组织承诺的因素探讨

在组织承诺因素结构分析的基础上,采用单因素方差分析、多重比较、交叉分析等方法,先探讨了人口特征因素与组织承诺的关系。继而,采用结构方程模型(SEM)中的路径分析技术探讨了影响组织承诺的因素模型,从而揭示了五种组织承诺类型各自的影响因素。     

THE STATUS OF THE ANOMALY IN THE FEMINIST GOD-TALK OF ROSEMARY RUETHER

Abstract. Scripture, the creeds, and tradition have provided the raw material that theology has attempted to refine. The contribution of much recent theology comes from new insight into these materials by women, blacks, and the Third World, often as examined by analytic tools derived from post-Christian ideologies. The theology of Rosemary Ruether stands out because of her choice of sources, among which she includes documents excoriated as heretical by what she calls the patriarchal orthodoxy of the early Christian church. Because of this it is useful to examine this type of theology in relation to other theological inquiries of recent years. The thesis of this paper is that, in her ability to incorporate source material hitherto regarded as heretical, Ruether has demonstrated the scientific character of this kind of theology.     

ON THE RELATIVE REINFORCING EFFECTS OF CHOICE AND DIFFERENTIAL CONSEQUENCES

Research on the reinforcing effects of providing choice-making opportunities to individuals with developmental disabilities (i.e., allowing them to choose reinforcers or tasks) has produced inconsistent results, perhaps because the mechanisms underlying such effects remain unclear. Choice may produce a reinforcement effect because it is correlated with differential consequences (i.e., choice may increase one's access to higher preference stimuli), or it may have reinforcement value independent of (or in addition to) the chosen stimulus. In Experiment 1, we used a concurrent-operants arrangement to assess preference for a choice condition (in which participants selected one of two available reinforcers) relative to a no-choice condition (in which the therapist selected the same reinforcers on a yoked schedule). All 3 participants preferred the choice option. In Experiment 2, we altered the schedules so that the participant selected one of two lower preference reinforcers in the choice condition, whereas the therapist selected a higher preference stimulus for the participant either half or all of the time in the no-choice condition. Participants typically allowed the therapist to select reinforcers for them (i.e., they allocated responding to the no-choice condition) when it resulted in greater access to higher preference stimuli.     

THE CORPORATE WOMAN OF THE 1990s

Attention to gender and the impact of perceived female/male differences on vocational choices, vocational behavior, and career opportunity peaked in the late 1970s and seemed to reach a plateau with the conclusion that most workplace gender differences can be accounted for by other variables, for example, job tenure and organizational level. Women who entered the workplace in the mid 1970s are now reaching the middle levels of organizations and provide a cohort group on which to test this hypothesis. This study examines gender comparisons on paper-and-pencil personality tests and interest surveys in a group of executive-level adults representing a wide variety of industries and job functions. Gender comparisons are discussed either as a function of occupational choice or membership in a minority group. Acknowledging and explaining gender differences where they exist can provide women with validation and support for their own experience.     

BROADENING THE DEFINITION OF DECISION MAKING:

Decision theory and research have focused almost exclusively on choice—the selection of the best option from a choice set containing two or more options. Largely overlooked is the question of how those particular options got there in the first place—why them and not others? This article describes a theory, called image theory, about how prechoice screening of options governs the contents of the set from which a choice is made and summarizes empirical tests of the theory. The research results suggest that screening plays afar more important role in decision making than is generally appreciated and that our view of decision making must be broadened accordingly.     

任务难度对于返回抑制出现时间的影响

在返回抑制的范式下,以大学生为被斌,采用线索一靶子模式进行了两项实验.实施一发现,在觉察任务中,返回抑制在线索和靶子的时间间隔(SOA)为300ms时出现;在辨别任务中,返回抑制在SOA为700ms时出现.实验二发现在选择任务中,返回抑制在SOA为1300ms时出现.这些结果表明,随着实验任务的难度逐渐增大,返回抑制出现越来越晚.实验任务的难度是影响返回抑制出现时间的一个重要因素.     

SELECTION AMONG EMPLOYER-SPONSORED PENSION PLANS: THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Recognizing the explosive growth and increasing importance of alternative forms of retirement plans, this study investigated determinants of employees' choice among the three major types of employer-sponsored pension plans: defined benefit, defined contribution, and hybrid cash balance. Using a field survey of 2,400 employees who participated in a state sponsored retirement system covering 60 participating employers, we tested a general model of public employee pension choice, and examined the roles of plan feature preferences, employee attitudes, and demographics in pension plan participation choices. The results identified primary predictors distinguishing plan selection and indicated that employees' preferences for plan features explained significant variation in their selection among pension plans. The results challenged the conventional wisdom regarding the nature of pension plan choice and highlighted the critical role played by individual differences.     

THE EFFECTS OF A GOOD-BEHAVIOR CONTRACT ON THE CLASSROOM BEHAVIORS OF SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTS1

The effects of a good-behavior contract on the on-task behavior, disruptive behavior, daily assignment completion, and weekly grades of four sixth-grade students were examined in a public school classroom. The contract consisted of presenting the students with a list of good conduct and assignment completion goals and a list of disruptive behaviors coupled with a list of rewards and penalties that could be earned. The rewards and penalties made use of existing facilities and classroom privileges. At the beginning of each morning work period, the teacher negotiated the good-behavior contract with each experimental subject. During the negotiations, the teacher emphasized student self-management and encouraged each student to earn a reward by achieving the good-conduct goals and completing the contract assignments. An isolated work area was provided to allow students the opportunity to remove themselves from their desks for a fixed period of 15 min. At the end of the work period, the teacher determined whether each student earned a choice of reward or penalty dependent on assignment completion and whether the teacher had observed disruptive behaviors. Thus, the contract permitted the student to negotiate the goal behaviors and contingencies with the teacher. Throughout the study, the students were in agreement with the teacher on whether a choice of reward or penalty had been earned. The contract was introduced for different children at different times, constituting a multiple-baseline analysis. On-task behavior and daily assignment completion increased, weekly grades were higher, and disruptive behavior decreased when the contract was in effect. Three contrast subjects were selected from the class as model students who consistently produced acceptable assignments and who did not engage in high rates of disruptive and/or off-task behaviors. When the contract was in effect for the experimental subjects, their performance compared favorably with the contrast subjects, who never received the daily contract. The results demonstrated that the contract was effective within the confines of the facilities and contingencies readily available in a public school classroom setting.     

THE VOCABULARIES OF ACADEMIA

Abstract— It has been demonstrated that humanists are far more likely to use filled pauses ("uh,""ah," or "um") during their lectures than are social or natural scientists This finding has been interpreted in terms of the hypothesis that filled pauses indicate time out while the speaker searches for the next word or phrase Based on the assumption that the more options at a choice point, the more likely a speaker will say "uh," it is hypothesized that the humanities are characterized by richer vocabularies (i e, more synonyms) than are the sciences An analysis of the number of different words used in lectures and in professional publications indicates that this is indeed the case Scientists consistently use fewer different words than do humanists Further, the number of different words correlates positively with the frequency of saying "uh" during lectures These findings are not restricted to academics, for in newspaper accounts, journalists use fewer different words in stories about science than in stories about the arts     

叙事研究的方法论意义

叙事研究有着从客观主义到构成主义(constructivism)的认识论背景,叙事研究的方法分为编码主题分析和意义诠释两大类,最后重点总结了叙事研究的方法论意义。叙事研究是研究人类思想的一条可供选择的道路,而纯粹的客观的量化的研究方法去研究人类思想的某些方面并非是最好的选择。叙事研究中研究者和被试互相影响,叙事研究的平民性,叙事研究打开了研究者的思路,丰富了研究者对问题的理解。     

A FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDY OF THE AI AND THE CCI

While the AI contains 13 common factors and the CCI contains 11 common factors, these factors together span only 22 dimensions. The lost dimensions may be associated with simple combinations of certain AI factors, and apparently result from differential tendencies of certain personalities to choose different colleges. One dimension of choice lies in the realm of academic interests and another in the realm of social relationships. In contrast with one another, the CCI is primarily a measure of college environment independent of the personality of the respondent, while the AI is primarily a measure of the individual reporting about himself.     

FREEDOM AND THE SOURCE OF VALUE: KORSGAARD AND WOOD ON KANT'S FORMULA OF HUMANITY

Abstract: This essay examines two interpretations of Kant's argument for the formula of humanity. Christine M. Korsgaard defends a constructivist reading of Kant's argument, maintaining that humans must view themselves as having absolute value because their power for rational choice confers value on their ends. Allen Wood, however, defends a realist interpretation of Kant's argument, maintaining that humans actually are absolutely valuable and that their choices do not confer value but rather reflect their understanding of how the objects of their choices fulfill their needs and wants and contribute to their flourishing. Though Korsgaard's reading is more consistent with Kant's prioritizing of the right over the good, this essay raises a metaethical question regarding her constructivist position, namely, “What is meant by her claim that rational choice ‘confers’ value on objects?” In developing this question, it presents a realist account of goodness that is taken from Peter Geach's “Good and Evil.”     

FAVORABLE IMPRESSION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RECRUITMENT INTERVIEWER

Students' impressions of campus recruiters influence students decisions on eventual job choice. In this study, the authors attempted to assess the effects of three variables—recruiter's age, recruiter's title, and recruiter's presentation—on students' impressions. A three factor factorial analysis of variance with three separate post hoc tests indicated that recruiter title and recruiter age significantly influenced impressions, while nonfluent presentation may have had a selective influence on impressions.     

独体汉字的字形相似性研究

本文以速示呈现方式获得了一系列独体汉字和字符的混淆矩阵。用Luce（1963）的选择模型特混淆矩阵分解为对称的相似矩阵和反应倾向矢量。基于相似矩阵,以聚类分析和多维量表法探索了汉字和字符的视觉特征及其表征形式,为揭示汉字视觉特征的几何特性和潜在结构,在研究方法上作了有意义的偿试、此外,本研究的结果支持了作者（1995）关于在含“十”或“口”的独体汉字中,“十”与“口”是该类汉字的突出视觉特征的结论。     

风险决策中的参照点效应研究

本研究以展望理论和社会决策范式模型为基础,着重探讨三种参照点对个体和群体风险决策产生的影响。３００名被试经实验者设置参照点后分别在个体和群体条件下对不同风险度的博弈方案进行选择。结果表明：（１）个体决策中,损失参照点的被试和无得失经验者比得益者更冒险;（２）得益被试的决策受到社会比较的影响;（３）损失参照点的被试并未对群体决策有更大影响,决定群体决策结果的主要是多数原则。