Third Party Power: Some Negative Effects of Positive Incentives

The present study simulated an organizational dispute to examine the effects of reward and coercive third party power on negotiator concessions and negotiator perceptions of the third party. The results indicated that the possibility of third party rewards inhibited negotiator concessions, and the possibility of third party punishments facilitated concessions. This effect was enhanced by negotiator limit. When negotiators had high limits, they made the fewest concessions if the third party could compensate; when negotiators had low limits, they made the greatest concessions if the third party could press. Taken together, the results suggest that negotiators sometimes use concession making as a strategy to affect third party behavior. When negotiators want third parties to provide compensation, as when they have high limits, they reduce their concession making as a way of eliciting the compensation; when they want to avoid third party behavior that is punitive, and they have low limits and room to make concessions, they hasten their concessions to reach agreement quickly and thereby stem the third party's involvement.     

儿童道德义愤的发展及其对第三方公正行为的影响

为了探讨儿童道德义愤的发展及其对第三方公正行为的影响，实验1考察106名幼儿园大班、小学2年级和4年级儿童的道德义愤在年级以及数目和价值不公平分配上的差异；实验2考察57名小学儿童在有无代价条件下，其道德义愤对第三方公正行为的影响。结果表明：儿童的道德义愤呈现随年级增长而不断增强的趋势；儿童由数目不公平分配引发的道德义愤得分显著高于价值不公平分配；幼儿园大班和2年级儿童在数目不公平分配中的道德义愤得分均显著高于价值不公平分配，而4年级儿童在数目和价值不公平分配中的道德义愤得分不存在显著差异；诱发道德义愤的儿童更多地做出第三方公正行为，并且更愿意选择补偿受害者；在不同诱发道德义愤条件下，是否需要付出代价都不会影响儿童的第三方公正行为。研究说明儿童的道德义愤随年级增长而发展，并影响第三方公正行为。     

以计算机为中介的交流与权力对谈判结果的影响

采用2×2被试问实验设计,通过128名被试组成64个两人组参加的一项模拟商业谈判,考察了CMC与权力对分配式谈判结果的影响。结果发现：（1）EM与IM两种不同CMC条件下,成交价没有显著差异;（2）卖方权力较大时,成交价显著高于买卖双方权力平等的条件;（3）IM条件下,权力不平等时,女性组的成交价显著高于男性组;（4）IM条件下,权力平等的谈判者的主观价值感显著高于权力不平等者;权力不平等的条件下,男性的主观价值感显著高于女性。     

Justice and Third Party Risk: The Ethics of Xenotransplantation

abstract  The question of when it is permissible to inflict risks on others without their consent is one that we all face in our everyday lives, but which is often brought to our attention in contexts of technological innovation and scientific uncertainty. Xenotransplantation, the transplantation of organs or tissues from animals to humans, has the potential to save or improve the lives of many patients but gives rise to the possibility of infectious agents being transferred from donor animals into the human population. As well as being an important ethical issue in its own right it therefore provides a useful vehicle for exploring the more general question of how to balance the benefits of a practice against the risks to third parties. This paper focuses on the Rawlsian, justice-based analysis of the risks of xenotransplantation proposed by Robert Veatch. It argues that Veatch is right to take considerations of distributive justice into account, but that his particular approach is flawed. It is hoped that consideration of Veatch's arguments, and of the underlying assumptions will suggest better ways of executing a justice-based approach.     

Consent Under Pressure: The Puzzle of Third Party Coercion

Coercion by the recipient of consent renders that consent invalid. But what about when the coercive force comes from a third party, not from the person to whom consent would be proffered? In this paper I analyze how threats from a third party affect consent. I argue that, as with other cases of coercion, we should distinguish threats that render consent invalid from threats whose force is too weak to invalidate consent and threats that are legitimate. Illegitimate controlling third party threats render consent invalid just as they do in two party cases. However, knowing that the consent is invalid is not sufficient to tell the recipient of consent what she may or should do. I argue that when presented with a token of consent from someone whom she thinks is experiencing an illegitimate controlling threat, the recipient may act on that token if and only if doing so represents a reasonable joint decision for her and the victim of coercion. The appropriate action for someone faced with third party coercion therefore depends on the other options open to her and those open to the victim of coercion.     

Dyadic Power Profiles: Power‐Contingent Strategies for Value Creation in Negotiation

Using a simulated employment negotiation, we tested the conditional relationships among dyadic power profiles (symmetric high, symmetric low, and asymmetric), the choice and sequencing of strategies, and value creation. We showed that negotiators in symmetric high, symmetric low, and asymmetric power dyads took distinctly different paths to value creation. Value creation was associated with increased mutual accommodation in high‐power dyads but with increased contentiousness in low‐power dyads. Asymmetric power dyads maximized value creation when they adopted a neutral stance, neither overusing nor underusing any one strategy. Although strategy use was a better predictor of value creation than strategy sequencing, sequences played an increasingly important role in value creation as the level of total power within the negotiation increased.     

The Objective Value of Subjective Value: A Multi‐Round Negotiation Study

A 2‐round negotiation study provided evidence that positive feelings resulting from one negotiation can be economically rewarding in a second negotiation. Negotiators experiencing greater subjective value (SV)—that is, social, perceptual, and emotional outcomes from a negotiation—in Round 1 achieved greater individual and joint objective negotiation performance in Round 2, even with Round 1 economic outcomes controlled. Moreover, Round 1 SV predicted the desire to negotiate again with the same counterpart, whereas objective negotiation performance had no such association. Taken together, the results suggest that positive feelings, not just positive outcomes, can evoke future economic success.     

The Influence of Task Difficulty on Context Effect - Compromise and Attraction Effects

Research in psychology finds strong context effects in consumer behavior and help consumer make up their mind from choice set when none of each option better than the others in all aspects. Context effect signifies that when evaluating a focal option, individuals take into consideration characteristics of other comparative alternatives rather than only the features of that focal alternative, complicating the decision-making process. The compromise effect and attraction effect (known together as context effect) explain the underlying motivations that cause consumers to choose the middle option and introduce an inferior option to make the originally dominated option more preferable. But past research on this domain has predominantly used an easy-to-count choice scenario (refers to the ease of using individual’s math skill on comparative attributes in the choice task) which is not ideally existed in real world situation. In real world purchasing situations, most of the time consumers become confused by a variety of products presented with irregular pricing, packaging or attributes which are apparently difficult to compare by math skill. This paper aim to examine “When the level of difficulty changed while processing the comparative task on the context of a choice set, how does this influence the resultant occurrence of context effect?” Results from four experiments demonstrate that both compromise and attraction effects decreased when the choice task become more difficult.     

The Effect of Negotiator Creativity on Negotiation Outcomes in a Bilateral Negotiation

This study examined creative negotiators to determine if they are able to achieve more successful outcomes in a negotiation context with integrative potential. Creativity scores were obtained from 70 participants, who performed a 2-party, multi-issue negotiation in 35 dyads. This negotiation led to economic and relational negotiation outcomes. The use of creative skills by negotiators was hypothesized to positively affect both classes of negotiation outcomes. Results indicated no significant effect of negotiators' creativity on economic negotiation outcomes. A negative effect of negotiators' creativity on relational negotiation outcome for the buyer was observed. For the relational negotiation outcome of the seller, the same negative tendency was observed, though no significant effect of negotiators' creativity. These findings extend the understanding of the relationship between negotiators' creativity and negotiation outcomes, which is highly underemphasized in current research. Further research should identify which aspects of creativity are crucial to negotiators and determine how they can be adequately measured. The issue of interaction between negotiators' creativity and situational variables should also be addressed, as it likely determines the effect of creativity on negotiation outcomes.     

Playing with Dreams: The Introduction of a Third Party into the Transference Dynamic of the Couple

Dreams in couple therapy are expressions of the multiple discontinuous selves of partners and of interpersonal defenses. Two dreams offered during analytic couple therapy illustrate the use of transference and countertransference to observe disturbances in self-cohesion, communication of self-states, and attempts to affectively influence the partner. Dreams transferentially communicate the state of the realtionship, activate a third formation expressing shared pathology, and facilitate the growth of new aspects of the self seeking a more loving bond.     

权力与耐心：权力感对时间知觉与跨期决策的影响

已有研究发现高权力感会使个体更耐心,更偏好延迟的大奖励。本研究假设高权力感影响耐心也会体现在时间知觉上,并且时间知觉是高权力影响耐心的心理机制。研究通过考察权力感对时间知觉与跨期决策的影响,以及时间知觉的中介作用对此假设进行了检验。实验1通过回忆法启动权力感,检验权力感对时间知觉的影响;实验2采用角色扮演法启动权力感,考察权力感对跨期决策的影响,并检验时间知觉的中介作用。结果发现：相比低权力感,高权力感个体感觉时间过得更快,进而使个体在跨期决策中更偏好延迟的大奖励,但权力感并不直接影响跨期决策。研究揭示了权力感对时间知觉的影响,为权力感影响耐心行为的解释提供了时间知觉的新视角。     

Splitting a Difference of Opinion: The Shift to Negotiation

Negotiation is not only used to settle differences of interest but also to settle differences of opinion. Discussants who are unable to resolve their difference about the objective worth of a policy or action proposal may be willing to abandon their attempts to convince the other and search instead for a compromise that would, for each of them, though only a second choice yet be preferable to a lasting conflict. Our questions are: First, when is it sensible to enter into negotiations and when would this be unwarranted or even fallacious? Second, what is the nature of a compromise? What does it mean to settle instead of resolve a difference of opinion, and what might be the dialectical consequences of mistaking a compromise for a substantial resolution? Our main aim is to contribute to the theory of argumentation within the context of negotiation and compromise formation and to show how arguing disputants can shift to negotiation in a dialectically virtuous way.     

An Evaluation of Two Mediation Techniques,Negotiator Power,and Culture in Negotiation1

This study examines the effects of 4 factors in a mediated transfer‐pricing negotiation: (a) the mediator's suggestion that negotiators have concern for the other (opposing) negotiator; (b) the mediator's proposal of moderate goals; (c) negotiator power; and (d) culture. In the simulated negotiations that were mediated by a corporate official, participants were 374 subjects from Hong Kong and the United States. Negotiators obtained lower joint outcomes when urged by the mediator to show concern for the other than when not given this admonition. When the mediator proposed moderate (vs. high) goals, the negotiators received lower joint outcomes but had a higher opinion of the mediator. While we expected negotiator power (equal vs. unequal) to interact with suggested concern for the other, it did so only for the negotiators' individual outcomes. Finally, culture produced a main effect: Hong Kong negotiators obtained higher joint outcomes than did their U. S. counterparts.     

Compromise: The Forgotten Dimension of Career Decision-Making

The study of compromise in career decision-making has been neglected. Out of Pryor's adoption of Gottfredson's compromise formulation, a programme of research was undertaken to investigate the basic dimensions of career compromise. The results of four separate studies are reported, investigating compromise conceptions, compromise plans, compromise choices and compromise interventions. These data support the importance of the three Gottfredson dimensions — psychological characteristics, prestige and sex-type-in the process of career compromise. The major deficiency of the Gottfredson compromise model is the need for elaboration of several of its aspects, such as sex differences in compromise strategies, 'refusal to compromise', the existence of more than one compromise paradigm and the interrelatedness of the compromise dimensions.     

Victims' Satisfaction With Compensation: Effects of Initial Disadvantage and Third Party Intervention

Two experiments examined the reactions of victims of disadvantage to compensation designed to improve their lot. In Experiment 1, subjects participated in an organizational simulation where they were disadvantaged with respect to their pay. Subsequently, a third party intervened with one of a number of strategies which varied according to whether or not the subjects received compensation and whether or not the person responsible for their disadvantage suffered. The interaction between compensation and suffering was significant on a satisfaction measure and the pattern indicated that subjects were most satisfied when the harmdoer suffered to provide compensation. This interaction was not significant on a measure of perceptions of fairness. Experiment 2 examined the possibility that the intervention of the third party in Experiment 1 may have created feelings of indebtedness. In a similar paradigm, subjects were either disadvantaged by a harmdoer or by external events and received compensation that either was or was not accompanied by a request for repayment. When subjects had been disadvantaged by external events, they were more satisfied and felt more fairly treated when there was an opportunity for reciprocation than when there was not, while the opposite pattern was the case when the harmdoer was responsible for the disadvantage. The results were discussed in the context of the complexity of the receipt of aid phenomenon and possible implications for the design of ameliorative social programs.     

权力概念的垂直方位空间隐喻对权力判断的影响

通过两个反应时实验,探讨权力的垂直方位表征对权力判断的影响。实验1发现,当权力词汇出现的位置(电脑屏幕上方或下方)与权力的空间隐喻一致时(高权力词在低权力词上方),相比于隐喻相反时(高权力词在低权力词下方),被试的反应时更短;实验2重复了这一结果,并进一步发现,隐喻一致促进被试的反应,隐喻相反抑制被试的反应。这表明权力的空间隐喻具有心理现实性,会影响权力信息的认知加工。     

Making a Party Leader Less of a Party Member: The Impact of Ambivalence on Assimilation and Contrast Effects in Political Party Attitudes

The present study tested the degree to which attitudes about a political party would be influenced by the context in which the party leader was rendered cognitively accessible. A sample of British undergraduates evaluated Prime Minister Tony Blair before expressing their opinion about the Labour party. In one condition, the two items were structured such that Blair was expected to be included in participants' representation of the party. In a second condition, the same items were structured such that Blair was expected to be excluded from participants' representation of the party. The results supported the hypothesis that manipulating the context in which Blair was made salient would produce different effects on a subsequent judgment of the Labour party, but only among politically ambivalent respondents.     

Conceptualizing and Measuring a Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence1

In response to new theoretical conceptualizations (Raven, 1992, 1993), an instrument was developed to measure 11 bases of power, the original 6 French and Raven (1959; Raven, 1965) bases of power, with 3 of these further differentiated: reward (personal, impersonal), coercion (personal. impersonal), legitimate (position, reciprocity, equity, dependence), expert, referent, and information. In Study 1, 317 American student respondents rated the likelihood that each of these power bases contributed to a supervisor successfully influencing a subordinate in a series of hypothetical situations. The internal consistency of the items which made up the 11 power bases proved adequate. Factor analysis found 7 factors and 2 categories of bases: harsh and soft. In Study 2, which used 101 Israeli health workers, the earlier findings were generally supported. In addition, job satisfaction was found to be positively related to the attribution of soft bases to the supervisor.