Men's Motivation to Perform the Testicle Self-Exam: Effects of Prior Knowledge and an Educational Brochure

College men reported their attitude and intention to perform the testicle self-exam (TSE) and they rated the likelihood of various consequences of performing the TSE, as well as the likelihood that several other people approved of this behavior. Half of these men had read a brochure about the TSE before completing the questionnaire, and half had not. Also, about half had heard about the TSE prior to the experiment and the others had not. Men's beliefs about the consequences of doing the TSE clustered into two factors: Beliefs about practical consequences and beliefs about health consequences. Men with (vs. without) prior knowledge about the exam and men who read (vs. did not read) the brochure endorsed more positive beliefs about practical and health consequences and more positive TSE attitude and intention. However, the effect of the brochure was far stronger for men without than with prior knowledge. In addition, factors influencing TSE attitude and intention differed for men without versus with prior TSE knowledge. Although the findings were generally consistent with the theory of reasoned action, some findings supported elements of protection motivation theory. Implications for promoting the TSE are discussed.     

Encouraging the practice of testicular self-examination: a field application of the theory of reasoned action

Identified factors associated with testicular self-examination (TSE) within the context of the theory of reasoned action. Subjects (232 male college students) received instruction in TSE and completed a questionnaire operationalizing the components of the theoretical model. During the following 6 weeks, a field intervention was conducted in which approximately half the subjects were exposed to posters reminding them to perform the exam. Multiple-regression analyses revealed that intention to perform TSE correlated significantly with attitude and subjective norm and that consideration of self-efficacy and TSE knowledge improved the prediction of intention. Significant differences in outcome expectancies and normative beliefs were found between subjects who intended to perform the exam and those who did not. Intention was moderately (r = .30, p less than .001) correlated with behavior; the intention-behavior correlation, however, was stronger among subjects who intended to perform the exam and were exposed to the posters (r = .55, p less than .001).     

Direct experience with a cancer self-exam: effects on cognitions and behavior

We tested and expanded Fazio's hypothesis that direct experience enhances attitude-behavior consistency (Fazio & Zanna, 1981) to identify effects of experience on the relation of behavior to subjective norm and intention. We also monitored the endurance of the experience effect over time. In order to manipulate experience, we instructed male college students in the United States to perform the testicle self-exam (TSE) a prescribed number of times during an initial week. We compared attitude, subjective norm, intention, and self-reported behavior across experience condition and three postmanipulation times. Direct experience increased later reported TSE behavior and tended to increase attitude and intention. It also enhanced consistency of attitude, subjective norm, and intention with early reported behavior as well as intention with later reported behavior.     

Intentions in the Light of Goals

This paper presents a systematic analysis of the various steps of goal-processing and intention creation, as the final outcome of goal-driven action generation. Intention theory has to be founded on goal theory: intentions require means-end reasoning and planning, conflict resolution, coherence. The process of intention formation and intentional action execution is strictly based on specific sets of beliefs (predictions, evaluations, calculation of costs, responsibility beliefs, competence, etc.). The origin of an intention is not necessarily a “desire” (which is just a kind of goal). Intention is a two-layered goal-structure: the intended action(s) to be executed, and the intended outcome motivating that action—with two distinct kinds of “failure”. This belief-goal perspective also allows to examine two stages/types of intention, and the relations and differences between intention “in agenda” (future directed) and intention under execution (intention in action). I will argue that the will is much more than the intention driving an intentional action. I will also claim that intentions are not there just for motivating and regulating intentional actions (from the motor level to more complex behaviors), but that they play also several other important roles.     

Shifting probation culture and advancing juvenile probation reform through a community‐based,participatory action research‐informed training

Many jurisdictions are currently transforming their juvenile probation systems to reflect research‐informed, developmentally based case management approaches. Training, developed through a community‐based, participatory action research (CBPAR) framework and guided by a community–academic partnership, may promote probation staff's readiness for such change. This paper examined whether such training could serve as an effective method to impact organizational culture by exploring shifts in probation staff's knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about graduated response – a structured juvenile probation case management system that aligns with research on adolescent development and youth behavior change. Data came from 559 juvenile probation staff trained in graduated response theory and practice between 2016 and 2019. Results demonstrated that at the end of a 1‐day, CBPAR‐grounded training program, participating staff reported significantly more buy‐in to graduated response, greater knowledge of this new system, and attitudes more strongly in favor of graduated response and intended behaviors. Study findings revealed important shifts indicative of readiness for change within juvenile probation departments. Additional implementation strategies are needed to extend training gains and overcome organizational‐ and system‐level barriers to change.     

Encouraging College Males to Perform Testicular Self-Examination: Evaluation of a Persuasive Message Based on the Revised Theory of Reasoned Action1

This study evaluated the effect of a persuasive message derived from a revised version of the theory of reasoned action on the performance of testicular self-examination (TSE). Subjects (114 male college students) were randomly assigned to listen to a taped persuasive message challenging unfavorable outcome beliefs (as suggested by the theory of reasoned action), a message on testicular cancer information, or no message. All subjects then completed a questionnaire operationalizing the components of the theory of reasoned action (revised to incorporate self-efficacy). As predicted, there was a significant relationship between exposure to the persuasive message and self-reported TSE performance (χ²(2) = 15.66, p < .0001). Sixty-three (71.23%) of the subjects contacted at a 4-week follow-up reported performing the exam. Of those, 44.23% had heard the theory-based message, 36.54% had heard the informational message, and 19.23% had not been exposed to a message. A path analysis of the relationships among components of the theoretical model provided partial support for the hypothesized causal pathways between message exposure and TSE intention and behavior.     

Health beliefs and promotion of HIV-preventive intentions among teenagers: a Scottish perspective.

Beliefs concerning the spread of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and preventive behaviors were examined in a sample of 351 sexually active Scottish teenagers. A postal questionnaire, including measures of variables specified by the health belief model (HBM) and preventive intentions, was employed. The relation between HBM measures and reported endorsement of HIV-preventive intentions was investigated. Results indicated that, in general, respondents intended to use condoms with new sexual partners. The majority also intended to carry condoms if they thought they might have sex with a new partner and to ask potential partners about their previous sexual history. Multiple-regression analyses showed that measures of health beliefs, gender, age, sexual experience, and previous condom use accounted for 17.8% to 24.3% of the variance in reported preventive intentions. Perceived barriers to preventive behaviors were found to be important predictors. However, the overall pattern of results raised questions concerning the adequacy of the HBM as a model of the determinants of HIV-preventive intentions, and the need for an extended model is discussed. Separate analyses were conducted for men and women and for 16- and 18-year-olds, and the implications for modeling intention formation in these subgroups are considered. The relevance of these findings to HIV-preventive campaigns is also discussed.     

The Correlates of Antinuclear Activism: Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Efficacy

Ajzen's (1988) theory of planned behavior was modified and used to examine antinuclear behavior. Subjects completed a questionnaire measuring their antinuclear attitudes, their perceptions of support for taking antinuclear action, and their perceptions of efficacy in this arena. Then, an antinuclear behavioral intentions questionnaire was presented, as well as several opportunities to engage in various antinuclear actions. Regression analyses indicated that Ajzen's model was supported to the extent that attitude emerged as a significant predictor of antinuclear intentions and behaviors. Subjective norms and efficacy were not significant predictors of either intentions or behaviors. Models incorporating behavior-specific attitude measures accounted for more variance than did models using more general attitude measures toward nuclear war/weapons.     

Predicting Intentions of AIDS-Preventive Behavior Among Adolescents

The aim was to predict adolescents' i]ntentions of regular condom use on the basis of an extended version of Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) theory of reasoned action. Attitude and subjective norm concerning regular condom use were measured along with their antecedent beliefs and evaluations, with fear of AIDS and knowledge about AIDS included as additional variables. A mixed-gender sample comprising both sexually active and sexually inexperienced adolescents was studied. The results strongly support the impact of attitude toward regular condom use as a determinant of a corresponding behavioral intention. Normative pressures failed to predict intentions of regular condom use, as did fear of AIDS and knowledge about AIDS. The findings are discussed with respect to intervention campaigns aimed at promoting condom use among adolescents as an AIDS-preventive measure.     

Young children's understanding of belief constraints on intention

One important characteristic of rational action is that our intentions should be consistent with our beliefs. That is, an intention to perform an action should normally be accompanied by a belief that the action will in fact be performed, and be supported by other relevant beliefs. Thus, if the intention is unfulfilled it will have been accompanied by false beliefs. Two studies examined whether 3-year-olds understand these belief constraints on intention. Children were shown films in which actors displayed great surprise and sadness at their failure to bring about the outcomes they intended and expected. They were then questioned about the actors' unfulfilled intentions and false beliefs. In both studies their understanding of unfulfilled intentions was excellent, and significantly better than their understanding of false beliefs. Nevertheless, they also revealed considerable understanding of the beliefs underpinning intentions and, in Study 2, their performance in terms of such beliefs was significantly better than that on standard false-belief tasks. Three-year-olds thus appear to have a threshold understanding of the role of belief in intentional action.     

What we think we do (to each other): how personality can bias behavior schemas through the projection of if-then profiles

People's knowledge about others includes not only person schemas about the typical traits of others but also behavior schemas about the likely interpersonal consequences of different behaviors. In this article, it is argued that perceiver effects can be interactive at the level of behavior schemas. A person's own personality configuration of if-then responses in social interactions (Mischel & Shoda, 1995) may contribute to that person's beliefs about the meaning and impact of relational behaviors more generally. In consequence, people who experience strong (or weak) responses to behaviors that vary along a particular trait dimension, such as warmth-coldness, may expect others to experience similarly strong (or weak) responses to those same kinds of behaviors. In 3 studies, people who were high in trait communion expected others to respond more strongly to behaviors that varied in warmth-coldness than did people who were low in trait communion, and people who were low in trait agency expected others to respond more strongly to behaviors that varied in assertiveness-unassertiveness than did people who were high in trait agency. Studies 2 and 3 provided evidence that participants' behavior schemas were based on assumptions derived from their own if-then personality profiles.     

创业意向的构思测量、影响因素及理论模型

创业意向是指将创业者的注意力、精力和行为引向某个特定目标的一种心理状态, 它是创业行为的最好预测指标。个人背景、人格特质和外界环境等都会影响创业意向。计划行为理论和创业事件模型是公认的两个创业意向理论框架。目前将创业意向作为因变量是主流研究, 而作为自变量和控制变量则是未来研究趋势。     

Connections between experience, beliefs, scientific knowledge, and self-evaluated expertise among investigators of child sexual abuse in Finland

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether clinicians investigating child sexual abuse (CSA) rely more on scientific knowledge or on clinical experience when evaluating their own expertise. Another goal was to check what kind of pre-trial beliefs the clinicians had. The connections between these different factors were investigated. A questionnaire covering items concerning demographic data, experience, knowledge about CSA, self-evaluated expertise and beliefs about CSA was given to 126 social workers, 60 child psychiatrists and 134 psychologists. The results showed that the clinicians relied more on their clinical experience than on scientific knowledge when evaluating their expertise as investigators of CSA. Furthermore, social workers possessed stronger attitudes in favor of children than the other groups, while child psychiatrists had more negative attitudes towards the criminal justice system. Male participants had less strong beliefs than did the female participants. The findings indicate that the education of CSA investigators should focus more on theoretical knowledge and decision-making processes as well as the role of pre-trial beliefs.     

Implementation intentions facilitate prospective memory under high attention demands

An implementation intention is a planning technique that involves specifying a situation for initiating an intended action and linking these specific cues to the intention. In two experiments with young adults, we found significant increases in prospective memory with implementation intentions. With an implementation intention, but not with standard instructions, prospective memory performance was maintained under demanding attentional conditions (Experiment 2). Ongoing task performance did not decline, however, in relation with a no prospective memory control. Positive effects were not observed when the imagery component of the implementation intention was isolated from the verbal component. We suggest that implementation intention planning (relative to standard instructions) increases the likelihood that people will encode a robust associative link between the target cue and the intended action, thereby promoting reflexive triggering of the intended action on presentation of the target cue.     

On inferring one's beliefs from one's attempt and consequences for subsequent compliance

D. J. Bem (1967, 1972) has suggested that a person may infer his or her beliefs from his or her actions. With his information-processing viewpoint, D. J. Bem proposed that individuals, by observing their past behaviors, may draw information for assessing their beliefs about themselves. There is a question, however, about the mechanism of self-perception when there is inconsistency between one's attempt to realize an intended goal and the outcome of the action. In a series of field studies, participants who had unsuccessfully tried to help a stranger were more willing to comply with a relatively large request made later. Implications for self-perception theory as well as for enhancing susceptibility to influence techniques are discussed.     

Informational Bases of Behavioral Intentions and Behavioral Expectations or Self-Predictions

Ninety subjects were randomly assigned to respond to a list of intention or expectation (self-prediction) questions regarding the performance of social, academic, and health-related behaviors. After responding to these questions, subjects were asked to describe the information they drew on when responding to the questionnaire items. A content analysis conducted on these responses revealed that subjects who completed the intention questionnaire relied more heavily on information regarding behavioral beliefs, and that subjects who completed the expectation (self-prediction) questionnaire focused more on their past behavior and circumstance information. The manna in which the results of the content analysis data support Fishbein and Ajzen's (1975) theory of reasoned action and the way in which these findings are related to the enhanced predictive validity obtained in previous research that employed an expectation question (self-prediction) format are discussed.     

Second-order beliefs about intention and children's attributions of sociomoral judgment

Predicting how another person will evaluate the intention underlying an action involves consideration of second-order mental states. Children (ages 5-10 years) and college students (N=105) predicted an observer's belief about an actor's intention and evaluated the actor from both their own perspectives and the perspective of the observer. Younger children were more likely than older children and adults to attribute a belief to the observer that mismatched the actor's prior intention. Attributed beliefs about intention were more likely to match negative prior intentions than to match positive prior intentions and were also more likely to match prior intentions when the observer knew the actor's prior intention than when the observer did not know the actor's prior intention. The judgments attributed to the observer were based on the beliefs about intention attributed to the observer, showing use of second-order mental states to infer another's sociomoral judgments.     

Practicing Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy and Religious Clients

REBT is a process of: (1) identifying dysfunctional emotions and behaviors which inhibit more effective pursuit of what clients experience as their deepest and most abiding desires; (2) relating these dysfunctions to irrational beliefs; (3) inducing clients to reduce the controlling role played by these beliefs in their lives and (4) adopting more self-helping beliefs and practices related to their goals thus reducing their dysfunctional emotions and behaviors and increasing their joyful living. This article discusses how this can be done from within an individual's supernatural belief system, whether that system is theistic or nontheistic.     

Culturally Congruent Mentoring: Predicting Asian American Student Participation Using the Theory of Reasoned Action1

Predictors of Asian American first‐year college students’ intention to participate in a culturally congruent mentoring program was empirically documented using Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) theory of reasoned action (TRA). Intention to participate was predicted by the belief that participation eases transition to college. Also, attitude toward participation was positively related to students’ beliefs that participation will strengthen ethnic identity and combat model‐minority myth. With 78% of students who intended to participate, results suggest that Asian American college students need programming that addresses issues as first‐year college students and those related to their cultural experience. The use of the TRA to better understand issues related to peer mentoring is illuminated. Wider implications for implementing culturally congruent mentoring programs in educational settings are discussed.     

Clinical and theoretical aspects of enactment

Enactment as a concept can serve analytic discourse through its established meaning of an act intended strongly to influence, persuade, or force another to react. We might agree to use the term in two complementary ways: Broadly, enactment can designate all behaviors of both parties in the analytic relationship, even verbal, in consequence of the intensification of the action intent of our words created by the constraints and regressive push induced by the analytic rules and frame. Patient and analyst are vulnerable to falling back on behaviors that actualize their intentions, doing so in ways motivated by and reflecting transference hopes, fears, and compromises shaped in their developmental past. Specifically, enactment can then be defined as those regressive (defensive) interactions between the pair experienced by either as a consequence of the behavior of the other. While nominally an interpersonal perspective, this concept of enactment facilitates more balanced attention to the involvement of both parties and to the intrapsychic dynamics in both that specifically shape their interactions. A clinical vignette illustrates the analyst's contributions to enactment, especially those reflecting his reactivated conflicts and their relation to his theoretical and technical preferences.