Exploring competitive orientation in a group of athletes participating in the 1996 paralympic trials

The purposes of this study were to test (1) whether athletes with congenital disabilities exhibited different competitive orientations than athletes with disabilities acquired during their lifespans and (2) whether male athletes with disabilities exhibited different competitive orientations than their female peers. 54 paraplegic, quadriplegic and amputee athletes competing in the 1996 Paralympic Track and Field Trials completed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire. No mean differences were found between men and women, athletes with different onsets of their disabilities across the lifespan, between adolescents and adults, and between athletes with different severity classifications on the Goal orientation, Competitiveness, and Desire to win scales. Larger studies are encouraged to examine competitive orientation, as well as scores on tests specifically constructed to be administered to athletes with disabilities.     

Comparison of sport achievement orientation between wheelchair and able-bodied basketball athletes

Differences in sport achievement orientations between 31 recreational wheelchair and 76 able-bodied basketball athletes were tested. Athletes from the New England region completed the three subscales of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation). Wheelchair athletes responded higher on the Competitiveness and Goal Orientation subscales. In discriminative function analysis competitiveness scores were the only significant discriminator between the two groups.     

Comparison of sport achievement orientation of male professional, amateur, and wheelchair basketball athletes

To examine the differences in sport achievement orientation among 35 professional, 36 amateur, and 35 wheelchair basketball athletes, these men completed three subscales of Competitiveness, Win orientation, and Goal orientation of the 25-item Sport Orientation Questionnaire. A multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences among groups. Win orientation was the factor, through discriminant function analysis, that significantly separated the athletes into the three groups. The highest win score was obtained by the professional, followed by the amateur and wheelchair groups. Replication study is necessary to confirm the present findings.     

Actual and perceived attitudes of wheelchair users

The sub-section of the disabled population who use a wheelchair has largely been neglected in the research Concerned with attitudes towards people with a disability. This study had two aims: firstly, to compare the attitudes towards wheelchair users of able-bodied people with people who actually use a wheelchair, and secondly, to examine the difference between how each group perceives the attitudes of the other towards this condition. The results revealed a number of interesting differences between the expressed attitudes of the two groups, although their overall mean scores were comparable. The wheelchair user group were found to believe non-disabled people to hold more negative attitudes than they actually expressed. A few age and sex differences were found, as well as a number of differences depending on whether the respondents had congenital or acquired disabilities. Finally, the amount of contact with those using wheelchairs was found to be associated with slightly more realistic attitudes among the non-disabled respondents. The results are discussed in the light of previous research, and possible reasons for, and ways to counter, the lack of empathy between the two groups are considered.     

An examination of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale using collegiate wheelchair basketball student athletes

The purpose was to examine the construct validity of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES). The construct validity of the scale was examined by applying it to collegiate wheelchair basketball student athletes at an NCAA sanctioned wheelchair basketball tournament at a mid-sized university in the south central United States (N=68). In accordance with previous research on the scale, Cronbach alpha was .86; confirmatory factor analysis supported a one-factor structure. The scale is useful for measuring global self-esteem in collegiate wheelchair basketball student athletes.     

Development of the Sports Performance Inventory: A Psychological Measure of Athletic Potential

The current study extends existing sport psychology research by developing a more comprehensive athlete attitudinal survey—the Sports Performance Inventory (SPI). A multiple item survey consisting of sport-related attitudinal items was distributed to 274 students enrolled in a large Division I Midwestern university. A principal components analysis with varimax rotation performed on the original survey items resulted in an 83 item survey with six interpretable factors: Competitiveness, Team Orientation, Mental Toughness, Emotional Control, Positive Attitude, and Safety Consciousness. All subscales demonstrated adequate item discriminability and internal consistency. Important statistically significant differences between college/novice and male/female athletes were found: (1) College athletes were found to have a higher SPI composite than novice athletes; (2) College athletes were found to have a more positive attitude than novice athletes; (3) College athletes were more competitive than novice athletes; (4) Females were more team oriented than males; and (5) Novice males were more competitive than novice females, while college females were more competitive than college males. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Achievement Motivation among High School Basketball and Cross-Country Athletes: A Personal Investment Perspective

Abstract

Goal perspective research in the sport setting has primarily focused on task and ego goal orientations, while failing to address the influence of social goals (e.g., Urdan & Maehr, 1995). Maehr and Braskamp's (1986) personal investment theory allows researchers to examine achievement motivation from a multidimensional perspective that incorporates social factors of motivation. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the nature of the personal incentives, sense of self, and perceived options (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986) of basketball and cross-country athletes via semi-structured interviews. Results from content analyses revealed that athletes defined positive and negative experiences through task-, ego-, and socially-oriented personal incentives as well as sense of self and perceived options components. Socially-oriented personal incentives and sense of self components were more prevalent for the basketball athletes than for the cross-country athletes. Notable sport group differences suggest the need to further examine social factors of motivation with a broader representation of individual and team sport athletes.     

Use of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire with wheelchair athletes: examination of evidence for validity

The factor structure of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire with three factors of competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation was examined in a sample of 243 wheelchair athletes from the USA. Based on sample-specific validity evidence theory, it was hypothesized that the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses would yield evidence on validity for wheelchair athletes who were different from able-bodied athletes. Exploratory factor analysis confirmed the hypothesis with a clear fourth and a questionable fifth factor. A confirmatory factor analysis did not adequately explain the new five-factor model. The new emerging fourth and fifth factors separated the competitiveness element of the questionnaire in 'self-referenced' and 'other-referenced' elements of competitiveness. Results are discussed in terms of demographic characteristics of the sample of wheelchair athletes.     

Competitiveness among females and males in physical activity classes

Competitive orientations of 237 male and female undergraduates enrolled in competitive and noncompetitive physical activity classes were investigated using the Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire [WOFO: R. L. Helmreich and J. T. Spence, The Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire: An Objective Instrument to Assess Components of Achievement Motivation and Attitudes Toward Family and Career, Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1978, 8(2) (Document #1677)] and a Competitiveness Inventory. Factor analysis confirmed the four WOFO dimensions proposed by Helmreich and Spence (mastery, work, competitiveness, personal unconcern). Factor analysis of the Competitiveness Inventory revealed three factors termed competitiveness, goal orientation, and win orientation. Sex × Activity Class (competitive or noncompetitive) (2 × 2) multivariate analyses revealed sex differences on the WOFO scores, both sex and activity differences on the Competitiveness Inventory scores, and no interactions. Sex differences on the WOFO scores confirmed Spence and Helmreich's findings; females scored higher on work and males scored higher on competitiveness. On the Competitiveness Inventory, males scored slightly higher than females on competitiveness, but most of the multivariate sex difference was due to males scoring higher on win orientation and females scoring higher on goal orientation. In contrast, the multivariate activity difference was due primarily to competitiveness; students in competitive activities scored considerably higher on competitiveness than students in noncompetitive activities. The findings suggest that sport-achievement orientation has a unique factor structure and provide evidence supporting the validity of the sport-specific, multidimensional Competitiveness Inventory.The assistance of Thomas Deeter and Carol Gruber with data collection and analysis is gratefully acknowledged.     

Revising the Competitiveness Index using factor analysis

The Competitiveness Index is a 20-item true-false measure designed to assess the desire to win in interpersonal situations. To develop a more psychometrically sound form of the scale, 213 undergraduates were administered the original form and a modified version containing a 5-point Likert-type scale. An initial principal component analysis using a varimax rotation of the modified version yielded a four-factor solution accounting for 54.5% of the explained variance. Based on a subsequent reliability analysis. six items were dropped from the modified scale. A second analysis produced a two-factor solution accounting for 54.1% of the explained variance. Both factors (Enjoyment of Competition and Contentiousness) formed reliable subscales. The 14-item Revised Competitiveness Index had high internal consistency and was positively correlated with the original Competitiveness Index, the competitiveness subscales of the Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire, the Sports Orientation Questionnaire, and the Nach Naff measure of Need for Achievement.     

运动情境四维成就目标定向量表的初步编制——以第十二届特奥会中国籍智力残疾运动员为被试

该研究在文献分析和访谈的基础上,确定智力残疾运动领域成就目标定向的四维结构并编制初测问卷。对400名特奥会运动员进行了施测,对数据进行项目分析、验证性因素分析和信度分析。验证性因素分析和信度分析显示,问卷具有较好的效度和信度,可以作为运动领域四维目标定向的测量工具。     

Sensitivity to sensoriprocessing, self-discrepancy, and emotional reactivity of collegiate athletes

This study investigated how differences between athletes who scored low and high on sensoriprocessing sensitivity apply self-discrepancies and emotional reactions to competitive sporting events. Two hypotheses were proposed: The High Sensitivity group (n = 33) would score higher for anxiety, guilt, and shame, and lower on pride and report more stress attributed to self-discrepancies than the Low Sensitivity group (n = 32) following competitive sports events. Collegiate varsity athletes were administered the High Sensitivity Scale prior to competition and completed the Selves Questionnaire and the Goal Congruent and Incongruent Emotion Scale immediately after competition. Scores for the High Sensitivity Scale were used to separate athletes into high and low sensitivity groups. A multivariate analysis of variance and subsequent univariate analyses indicated that the High Sensitivity group reported higher scores on anxiety, shame, and stress than the Low Sensitivity group. This was interpreted as reflecting differences between both ideal and ought self-discrepancies.     

Comparison of mood states of college able-bodied and wheelchair basketball players.

The mood states of 26 college wheelchair basketball players were examined in relation to 11 varsity college basketball players and normative data from 340 college men. Multivariate analysis indicated that the wheelchair basketball players had significantly better mental health profiles than the two comparison groups.     

Perceived verbal aggressiveness of coaches in volleyball and basketball: a preliminary study

This study examined verbal aggressiveness of coaches as perceived by their athletes, 108 senior athletes (57 boys and 51 girls) ages 15-19 years. Participants were basketball players (56 athletes) and volleyball players (52 athletes) who completed questionnaires. The scale of verbal aggressiveness showed high internal consistency. A two-way analysis of variance, conducted using sex and sport as independent variables to examine interactions, yielded significant differences between adolescent volleyball and basketball athletes. Volleyball athletes had lower scores on the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale than basketball players. Research with larger samples and other sports is recommended.     

When winning is everything: On passion, identity, and aggression in sport

ObjectivesTo examine the interplay between harmonious and obsessive passion and aggressive behavior in sports. It was hypothesized that players who are obsessively-passionate about basketball should report higher levels of aggressive behaviors than harmoniously-passionate players in general, and especially under self threat.MethodsUsing the Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al. (2003), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 756–767) as a guiding framework, basketball players indicated their level of passion and aggression during typical basketball situations using a self-reported questionnaire.ResultsIn Study 1, results demonstrated that athletes with a predominant obsessive passion for basketball reported higher levels of aggression on an aggression scale than athletes with a harmonious passion. In Study 2, harmoniously-passionate and obsessively-passionate athletes were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: self-threat and self-affirmation. We predicted that under self-threat, obsessively-passionate players should report higher levels of aggressive behavior than harmoniously-passionate players. However, no differences were expected between obsessively and harmoniously-passionate players in the self-affirmation condition. These hypotheses were supported.ConclusionsThe present findings reveal that having an obsessive passion is associated with aggressive behavior, especially under identity threat. Thus, the love for one's sport may lead to some maladaptive interpersonal behavior, especially if such love is rooted in a sense of identity that is contingent on doing well in that sport.     

Precompetition anxiety in Chinese athletes

Precompetition anxiety and self-confidence were investigated in a sample of 132 male and 103 female Shanghai college athletes. The participants were administered the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 of Martens, et al. 30 to 40 min. before competing in important track and field events or basketball games. Analysis by independent t tests showed that there were no sex differences in scores on the Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, or Self-confidence subscales; however, compared to those in team sports (basketball), athletes competing individually (track and field) scored significantly higher on the Somatic Anxiety subscale and significantly lower on the Self-confidence subscale. Comparisons with data from comparable North American samples indicated that Chinese athletes reported lower scores on Cognitive Anxiety and Somatic Anxiety but similar scores on Self-confidence.     

Social Role Theory and the Perceived Gender Role Orientation of Athletes

In this research we examined the influence of athletic roles upon the perceived gender role orientations of male and female athletes. Participants were 148 students who read a bogus newspaper article that described either a male or female athlete who had successfully competed in an athletic event. The type of sport (football, basketball, and cheerleading) was manipulated. Female football players and basketball players were perceived as higher in agency than female cheerleaders. Male cheerleaders were perceived as higher in communality than male football players and male basketball players. Participants made external attributions concerning the motivations of athletes who competed in gender traditional sports. They made internal attributions concerning the motivations of athletes who competed in gender nontraditional sports. These findings are examined in relation to social role theory.     

CORRELATES OF SEX-TYPING IN FIJI

The effects of sex-typing on self-esteem, achievement orientation, and attitudes toward women were examined in Fiji using 600 secondary school and 240 university students. As Spence and Helmreich (1978) found in the U.S., sex-typing effects were strong on all variables, with Androgynous and Masculine students scoring highest on Self-esteem, Mastery, Work Orientation and Competitiveness, and Undifferentiated students scoring lowest. Sex-typing interacted with sex on the Attitudes Toward Women Scale. The effects were stronger among secondary school students than among university students. As in the U.S., sex differences were less marked than sex-typing differences, although there were fewer sex differences on these measures in Fiji than in the U.S. The importance of instrumental traits in achievement orientation and self-esteem was confirmed in a vastly different cultural setting, suggesting the possibility of pancultural generality of sex-typing effects.     

Comparison of male and female junior athletes' self-perceptions and body image.

Few studies have examined sex differences in body perceptions in sports where the pressure to display a certain physique is reduced. The aim of the present study was to investigate sex differences in physical self-perceptions and body image in junior athletes who are involved in sprint kayaking, a sport where a low body weight is relatively unimportant. 12 male and 13 female members (aged 13-17 yr.) of the British Canoe Union Junior Development Squad for sprint-kayak racing completed the Physical Self-perception Profile for Children and the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that girls reported significandy higher Sports Competence and lower Appearance Orientation scores than boys. This study has raised a number of issues surrounding the physical self-perceptions and body image of junior athletes involved in a power- and strength-based sport. It seems that male athletes may also experience pressures to conform to a male version of a 'beautiful body'.     

Athletic Identity and Social Goal Orientations as Predictors of Moral Orientation

Moral development, achievement goal, and athletic identity are considered psychological constructs sharing specific cognitive, social, motivational, and behavioral traits. The purpose of the present article is to investigate the relation among moral orientations, athletic identity, and social goal orientations. In addition, the impact of age, gender, type of sport, sport division, and school performance on moral orientation has also been investigated. One hundred forty athletes of artistic gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, and acrobatic gymnastics (n?=?29 boys, n?=?111 girls), aged 8 to 17, participated in the research. They belonged to IV, III, II, and I sport divisions. The participants filled in three questionnaires: Moral Orientation Students in Physical Education Questionnaire, Athletic Identity Measurement Scale, and Social Goal Orientation Questionnaire. The results established that moral orientation is related to the athletic identity and achievement social goal constructs, as well as the fact that they affect school performance.