USING COMPUTERS TO DELIVER TRAINING: WHICH EMPLOYEES LEARN AND WHY?

Compared to traditional instructor-led training, computer-delivered training typically offers learners more control over their instruction. In learner-controlled environments, learner choices regarding practice level, time on task, and attention are expected to be critical determinants of training effectiveness. To examine the effect of learner choices in computer-based training, a study was conducted with 78 employees taking an Intranet-delivered training course. Learner choices were assessed and predicted with goal orientation (mastery and performance) and learning self-efficacy, as well as age, education, and computer experience. Results indicate considerable variability among trainees in practice level and time on task, which both predict knowledge gain. Performance orientation interacted with learning self-efficacy to determine practice level, and mastery orientation had an unexpected negative effect. Implications for the use of computers to deliver training and for future research are discussed.     

Active learning: effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability

This article describes a comprehensive examination of the cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes underlying active learning approaches; their effects on learning and transfer; and the core training design elements (exploration, training frame, emotion control) and individual differences (cognitive ability, trait goal orientation, trait anxiety) that shape these processes. Participants (N = 350) were trained to operate a complex, computer-based simulation. Exploratory learning and error-encouragement framing had a positive effect on adaptive transfer performance and interacted with cognitive ability and dispositional goal orientation to influence trainees' metacognition and state goal orientation. Trainees who received the emotion-control strategy had lower levels of state anxiety. Implications for development of an integrated theory of active learning, learner-centered design, and research extensions are discussed.     

Challenging assignments and activating mood: the influence of goal orientation

We examined the impact of induced goal orientation on individuals' positive‐ and negative‐activating mood when taking part in high‐ or low‐challenging assignments. Results indicated that performing a low‐challenging assignment leads to a higher positive‐activating mood with a performance‐approach orientation than with a mastery approach, or no goal orientation. In contrast, conducting a high‐challenging assignment leads to a higher positive‐activating mood with a mastery approach than with a performance approach, or no goal orientation. These findings suggest that high‐challenging assignments are best instructed with a focus on learning whereas low‐challenging assignments are best instructed with a focus on superior performance.     

Goal orientation and ability: interactive effects on self-efficacy,performance, and knowledge

This study examined the direct relationship of goal orientation--and the interaction of goal orientation and cognitive ability--with self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge in a learning context. The authors argue that whether a particular type of goal orientation is adaptive or not adaptive depends on individuals' cognitive ability. Consistent with previous research, learning orientation was positively related to self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge, whereas performance orientation was negatively related to performance only. The interactions between goal orientation and ability also supported several hypotheses. As expected, learning orientation was generally adaptive for high-ability individuals but had no effect for low-ability individuals. In contrast, the effects of performance orientation were contingent on both individuals' level of cognitive ability and the outcome examined.     

The Joint Impact of Achievement Goals and Performance Feedback on Information Giving

This research examined how performance feedback moderates the effects of individuals' achievement goals on information exchange when carrying out a novel and complex task. Experiment 1 demonstrated that mastery goal individuals who received positive performance feedback gave less modified information about their task performance to their exchange partner relative to both mastery goal individuals who received negative feedback and performance goal individuals (who received either negative or positive feedback). In Experiment 2, we found that relative to performance goals, mastery goals led to a stronger reciprocity orientation and a weaker exploitation orientation. Also, mastery goal individuals provided information of higher quality than performance goal individuals, thereby explaining the observed findings in Experiment 1.     

Effects of Training Goals and Goal Orientation Traits on Multidimensional Training Outcomes and Performance Adaptability

This research examined the effects of mastery vs. performance training goals and learning and performance goal orientation traits on multidimensional outcomes of training. Training outcomes included declarative knowledge, knowledge structure coherence, training performance, and self-efficacy. We also examined the unique impact of the training outcomes on performance adaptability by predicting generalization to a more difficult and complex version of the task. The experiment involved 60 trainees learning a complex computer simulation over 2 days. The research model posited independent effects for training goals relative to goal orientation traits and independent contributions of training outcomes to the performance adaptability of trainees. The findings were consistent with the proposed model. In particular, self-efficacy and knowledge structure coherence made unique contributions to the prediction of performance adaptability after controlling for prior training performance and declarative knowledge. Implications and extensions are discussed. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.     

成就目标导向、团队绩效控制对员工创造力的跨层次影响

成就目标导向在团队绩效控制情境下能否有效预测员工创造力是个值得关注的话题。以研发团队为研究对象, 运用线性阶层模型考察了三者间的跨层次关系。结果发现, 低绩效控制下, 精熟目标导向、表现–趋近导向对创造力有正向影响, 表现-回避导向有负向影响; 高绩效控制下, 精熟导向对创造力有“S型”非线性影响, 表现-回避导向有正向影响。结果表明, 高精熟目标导向在高绩效控制情境下抑制员工创造力, 而表现导向也并非总是与缺乏创造力联系起来, 提高表现-回避导向个体的绩效控制程度或者降低表现-趋近导向个体的绩效控制程度同样可以促进创造力。启示在于, 管理者不仅应关注成就导向的个体差异, 更应重视构建相应的绩效控制情境, 从二者交互作用出发激活员工创造力。     

高中生目标定向、学习策略、归因与成绩的关系

该文采用问卷调查的方法,对270名高中生的目标定向、学习策略、归因的特点及其与成绩的关系进行了研究。结果表明：1）男生的掌握定向倾向强于女生,且在学习中更多地采用认知和元认知策略,而女生则具有更明显的能力和内部归因。2）归因与目标定向、学习策略间呈现出较为复杂的相关关系。3）复述策略和努力归因能够负向预测成绩,调节和努力管理策略可以正向预测成绩,而目标定向通过归因和学习策略间接影响成绩。     

Examining the relationship between athletes' achievement goal orientation and ability to employ imagery

ObjectiveImagery ability may be cognitively regulated by motivational states, thus it is important to determine the relationship between goal orientations and imagery ability. Design/Method: Participants were 272 male and female athletes, representing nine sports. Goal orientations and cognitive and motivational imagery abilities were assessed via questionnaires. Task and ego goal orientations were examined via a two-step cluster analysis procedure, resulting in the identification of four goal orientation clusters. Separate multivariate analyses were conducted to assess differences in cognitive imagery ability and motivational imagery ability for the clusters, with gender and sport type entered as covariates. Results: For cognitive imagery ability, gender had a significant effect for athletes with low task/low ego orientation; female athletes rated their internal imagery perspective as clearer and more vivid. Regarding motivational imagery ability, when sport type was controlled for, cluster membership demonstrated a significant multivariate effect. Goal orientations have a relationship with motivational imagery ability but this same relationship was not evident with cognitive imagery ability. Athletes with high task/high ego or high task/low ego goal orientations scored significantly higher on their ability to feel emotions and their ease of generating motivational general-mastery images compared to athletes with low task/high ego or low task/low ego orientations. No differences between goal orientation clusters were found for motivational general-arousal imagery ability. Conclusion: Athletes who have a high task orientation are very motivated and have an easy time forming mastery images and a high ability to experience the emotion of these images.     

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Achievement Goal Orientations Shift with Age

Students engage in learning activities with different achievement goal orientations. Some students pursue learning for learning sake (i.e. mastery goal orientation), some are driven by gaining favourable judgement of their performance (i.e. performance approach goal orientation), and others focus on avoiding negative judgement (i.e. performance avoidance goal orientation). These goal orientations are linked with academic achievement, and troublingly, students report decreasing levels of goal orientations across the school years. However, little is known concerning the mechanisms that drive this decline. In a large (N = 891 twin pairs) cross‐sectional genetically informative sample (age = 8 to 22 years), we found that older students reported lower goal orientations. Then, we identified shifts in the magnitude of genetic and environmental variance in each goal orientation. For example, variance in mastery goal orientation was primarily associated with environmental factors during the elementary school years. As students entered high school, genetic influences increased, replacing shared environmental influences. Finally, we situated these findings in the larger nomological network by testing associations with psychological constructs (e.g. personality and cognitive ability) and contextual variables (e.g. parents, schools, and peers). The development of academic motivation is complex with many interconnecting factors that appear to shift with age © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

The Influence of Goal Orientation on Task Performance: A Substantively Meaningful Suppressor Variable1

The present study investigated the relationship between performance goal orientation and performance on a complex task. It was hypothesized that cognitive interference would mediate this relationship. In addition, it was hypothesized that cognitive ability would moderate the relationship between cognitive interference and task performance. A three-variable suppressor relationship indicated that, although the direct effect of performance goal orientation on performance was one that produced better performance, the indirect effect of performance goal orientation indicated that performance orientations were associated with increases in cognitive interference, and these increases in cognitive interference were associated with poorer performance. Thus, the beneficial aspect of performance goal orientation (i. e., the direct effect) was counterbalanced by the dysfunctional aspects of performance goal orientation (i. e., the associated increase in cognitive interference). Support was also found for the proposed moderation of ability on the cognitive interference-task performance relationship for final, but not initial performance. The results are interpreted in light of recent discussions regarding the influence of goal orientation on task performance and cognitive interference.     

Ignored no more: Within‐Person variability enables better understanding of training transfer

The empirical findings from training transfer research rest on a rather static view of the transfer phenomenon, ignoring potential within‐person change in transfer over time. This study investigates within‐person variability in mastery goal orientation together with variability over time in the application of newly acquired knowledge and skills to the job context. Data from longitudinal surveys of trainees voluntarily attending statistical workshops revealed that trainees varied significantly in 2 characteristics of transfer trajectory: (a) initial attempts to transfer and (b) subsequent rate of change in transfer. Two affective learning outcomes showed differential relationships with transfer trajectories: Whereas posttraining self‐efficacy predicted initial attempt of transfer, motivation to transfer assessed at the end of training predicted subsequent rate of change in transfer. Furthermore, level and variability of trainees’ mastery orientation interacted to influence posttraining self‐efficacy and motivation to transfer, and subsequently transfer trajectories. Specifically, a trainee's mastery orientation level had stronger prediction of these outcomes when his/her mastery orientation distribution was less variable across situations. These findings highlight the importance of attending to within‐person variability in the study of training transfer by (a) considering training transfer as trajectories over time and (b) understanding trainee traits as frequency distributions.     

Validation of a Chinese achievement goal orientation questionnaire

Background . The mixed findings of previous studies on the nature and effects of performance goals have led to a call for re‐examination of the dichotomous framework of achievement goal orientation theory. While the call for a revised achievement goal orientation theory has received considerable discussion in Western studies, it is not clear whether the revised theory can also be applied in other ethnic and cultural contexts. Aims . Our aim was to validate the Chinese version of Elliot and Church's (1007) Goal Orientation Questionnaire and to initially test the revised goal orientation theory in the context of Chinese students in Hong Kong. Sample . A total of 270 Chinese students (137 boys and 133 girls) from a primary and secondary school in Hong Kong participated in Study 1. Study 2 involved a total of 9,440 students (5,420 boys and 4,020 girls) from 10 primary and 18 secondary schools in Hong Kong. Method . Participants in Study 1 completed a Chinese Goal Orientation Questionnaire (CGOQ) measuring three types of goal orientation. Exploratory factor analysis, item–total correlation, and reliability analyses were undertaken to assess the psychometric quality of the CGOQ. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis was used to provide further validation for the revised questionnaire. The relationships among different goal orientations and that with students' perceived classroom environment and self‐efficacy were also explored using structural equation modelling. Results . Findings of exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 and confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 supported the proposed factor structure of the CGOQ. All the subscales in the questionnaire also showed good internal consistency reliabilities. The construct validity of the CGOQ was supported by its significant relationship with criterion measures. While most of the relationships between the three types of goal orientation and the learning‐related variables measured in our study were consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were different from previous studies. Conclusion . Our findings generally supported the trichotomous framework of the revised goal orientation theory with Chinese students in Hong Kong. Consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, our findings indicated that both mastery and performance‐approach goals had positive impacts on students' learning. However, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were contradictory to the conceptualization of performance‐avoidance goals in the revised theory. Cultural and social factors affecting Hong Kong students' goal orientations are discussed.     

Achievement goals as mediators of the relationship between competence beliefs and test anxiety

Background. Previous work suggests that the expectation of failure is related to higher test anxiety and achievement goals grounded in a fear of failure. Aim. To test the hypothesis, based on the work of Elliot and Pekrun (2007) , that the relationship between perceived competence and test anxiety is mediated by achievement goal orientations. Sample. Self‐report data were collected from 275 students in post‐compulsory education following courses in A Level Psychology. Results. Competence beliefs were inversely related to the worry and tension components of test anxiety, both directly and indirectly through a performance‐avoidance goal orientation. A mastery‐avoidance goal orientation offered an indirect route from competence beliefs to worry only. Conclusion. These findings provide partial support for Elliot and Pekrun's (2007) model. Although significant mediating effects were found for mastery‐avoidance and performance‐avoidance goals, they were small and there may be other mechanisms to account for the relations between competence beliefs and test anxiety.     

Training teamwork in medicine: An active approach using role play and feedback

Recent reports in the field of medicine have recommended teamwork training as method of reducing human error. The current study evaluated a teamwork training protocol that used a lecture, several role plays, and guided discussion for feedback. Forty‐one medical residents participated in the training on 1 of 2 days (groups) and completed evaluation measures both prior to and immediately following the training program. Means for a situational judgment test (SJT) were higher for post‐training scores than pre‐training scores. However, mean comparisons with teamwork attitudes and learning goal orientation did not yield significant differences. An item analysis of the SJT responses indicated significant response shifts that corresponded to teamwork behaviors. Results suggested that teamwork training positively affected behavioral intentions for trauma room teamwork.     

The influence of context‐specific and dispositional achievement goals on children's paired collaborative interaction

Background . Research has demonstrated that working collaboratively can have positive effects on children's learning. While key factors have been identified which influence the quality of these interactions, little research has addressed the influence of children's achievement goals on collaborative behaviour. Aims . This paper investigates the influence of mastery and performance goals on the nature of children's collaborative participation while playing a problem‐solving computer game with a peer. Sample . Forty‐eight primary schoolchildren aged 8–10 years were divided into two groups: those displaying strong personal goal preferences (dispositional group: N = 14) and those whose goal preferences were context‐dependent, displaying no consistent bias for either mastery or performance goals (context‐dependent: N = 34). Children were paired on the basis of same gender, year group, and goal orientation. Method . Context‐dependent pairs were assigned to either a mastery or a performance condition in which they received goal‐focused instructions. Dispositional pairs received only the instructions to collaborate given to all groups. Collaborative sessions were videotaped and interactions coded. Results . Children who were assigned mastery goals engaged in significantly more elaborated problem‐solving discussion whilst children who were assigned performance goals engaged in more executive help seeking and displayed lower levels of metacognitive control. Dispositional pairs shared some similar patterns, according to goal orientation, as context‐dependent pairs. Conclusions . Goal‐focused instructions can be used to influence the nature and quality of children's paired interactions. Instructing children towards mastery goals appears to promote a more collaborative style of interaction.     

学习环境、成就目标定向对学业情绪和学业成就的影响:基于物理学科的研究

以733名中学生为被试,采用结构方程模型对物理环境目标结构、成就目标定向、物理学业情绪及物理学业成就的关系建构模型.结果发现:(1)物理环境掌握目标结构对积极高唤醒、积极低唤醒和消极高唤醒学业情绪皆有显著积极预测作用,而物理环境表现目标结构则只对消极高唤醒和消极低唤醒物理学业情绪有显著积极预测作用;(2)通过成就目标定向中介对物理学业情绪的影响效果,物理学业情绪在成就目标和物理学业成就之间起中介作用,但影响模式不同;(3)研究结果支持学业情绪控制-价值扩展模型.     

Mastery approach and performance approach: the differential prediction of organizational citizenship behavior and workplace deviance,beyond HEXACO personality

Goal orientation has become one of the most studied motivational constructs in the psychology literature. However, in organizational contexts, the research focus to date has largely centered on the relationship between goal orientation and task performance—neglecting the valuable contribution of non-task work behaviors, such as workplace deviance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) to organization functioning. In this paper, we addressed this gap in the literature by investigating the differential prediction of performance approach and mastery approach goal orientation on workplace deviance and OCB, beyond personality correlates. We hypothesize that performance approach orientation is positively associated with workplace deviance and mastery approach orientation is positively associated with OCB. A sample of employed participants (n = 114) provided self-reports of goal orientation, workplace deviance, OCB and personality. Additionally, participants nominated a well-acquainted peer to provide peer-reports of their personalities. When controlling for personality, performance approach orientation positively predicted workplace deviance whereas mastery approach orientation positively predicted organizational citizenship behavior. This study is the first to our knowledge to explore the relationships between goal orientation and non-task work behaviors and to show that goal orientation adds to the understanding of workplace deviance and OCB, beyond personality. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

To master or perform? Exploring relations between achievement goals and conceptual change learning

Background. Research is needed to explore conceptual change in relation to achievement goal orientations and depth of processing. Aims. To address this need, we examined relations between achievement goals, use of deep versus shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change learning using a think‐aloud protocol. Sample and Method. Seventy‐three undergraduate students were assessed on their prior knowledge and misconceptions about Newtonian mechanics, and then reported their achievement goals and participated in think‐aloud protocols while reading Newtonian physics texts. Results. A mastery‐approach goal orientation positively predicted deep processing strategies, shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change. In contrast, a performance‐approach goal orientation did not predict either of the processing strategies, but negatively predicted conceptual change. A performance‐avoidance goal orientation negatively predicted deep processing strategies and conceptual change. Moreover, deep and shallow processing strategies positively predicted conceptual change as well as recall. Finally, both deep and shallow processing strategies mediated relations between mastery‐approach goals and conceptual change. Conclusions. Results provide some support for Dole and Sinatra's (1998) Cognitive Reconstruction of Knowledge Model of conceptual change but also challenge specific facets with regard to the role of depth of processing in conceptual change.     

目标定向与进步反馈对优差生写作成绩影响的实验研究

本研究以24名优生和24名学习困难学生(以下简称差生或学困生)为被试,通过实验探讨了目标定向与进步反馈对优差生写作成绩的影响。结果表明：(1)目标定向和反馈对优生的写作成绩影响不显著;(2)在成绩目标定向时,接受进步反馈的差生其作文成绩显著优于无进步反馈的差生;在掌握目标定向时,进步反馈对差生的影响不显著;(3)在无进步反馈时,掌握目标定向的差生其写作成绩显著优于成绩目标定向的差生;在给予进步反馈时,目标定向对差生的影响不显著。