The declining job satisfaction of white-collar women in sex-segregated and mixed-sex occupations

The declining job satisfaction of women white-collar workers reported by J. Veroff, E. Douvan, and R. A. Kulka (1981, The Inner American: A self-portrait from 1957 to 1976, New York, Basic Books) is explored through secondary analyses of their data from two national cross-sectional surveys conducted in 1957 and 1976. Analyses were done using data from 258 women in 1957 and 372 women in 1976 in white-collar jobs. Multivariate contingency table analyses were used first to explore the separate effects of type of white-collar employment, whether or not the job was sex segregated, age, birth cohort, and education on job satisfaction declines. The decline in job satisfaction was found to be greater for women in sex-segregated occupations that in mixed-sex ones. In addition, while all white-collar women express increased dissatisfaction with ego-involving aspects of work, those in sex-segregated fields showed the greatest increases in job dissatisfactions in affiliative and achievement spheres. Neither type of white-collar employment nor birth cohort related to differential job satisfaction declines though age and education changes did. The final multivariate analysis demonstrated that the changing age and educational characteristics of job holders in sex-segregated fields accounted for the greater job satisfaction declines for these women, and that sex segregation did not appear to affect job satisfaction beyond changes related to these demographic factors.     

Current sex role conceptions and conflict

Beliefs about role sharing or sex typing in occupations, positions of authority, the care of infants and children, housekeeping chores, responsibility for the economic support of the family, and the handling of family finances were investigated for 1,048 men and women residing in New York City. Beliefs about goals of the women's movement, about equality of the sexes, and about the elimination of sex typing in the socialization of children were also investigated. Questionnaires were distributed in the spring and fall of 1973 at several business firms, university campuses, shopping centers in black and white working class districts, and at a professional building. All of the independent variables — gender, age, marital status, occupation, educational level, religion, and ethnicity — were significantly related to beliefs about sex roles. Gender was the overriding independent variable, however. Significant differences in beliefs between the sexes persisted within the categories established by the other independent variables. For the total sample, discrepancies in the beliefs of men and women ranged from very highly significant to significant on almost all items on the questionnaire, although a majority of both sexes opted for more equality, less sex typing, and more role sharing. Role conflict, insofar as this stems from a lack of mutuality in role definitions and expectations, would appear to be a likely experience of many of the men and women interviewed. The role conflict model is a valuable tool that should be applied to actual interactional settings, involving men and women, in future research.     

Primary-school stutterers: Have attitudes changed?

How concerned are primary-school-aged stuttering children about their communication problem? What are the clinical implications of this concern?Fifteen years ago, Silverman (1970) suggested that primary-school-aged children who stuttered were not concerned about their disfluencies. A clinical implication of that report was that the interpreted lack of concern might negatively affect the children's motivation and desire for change in therapy. Scant research exists to support or refute this implication. While research is available on reactions to stuttering, pretherapeutic attitudes—especially those of children—have not been systematically reported. Guitar (1976) measured the pre-treatment attitudes of 38 adult stutterers and reported that, “those stutterers with more negative attitudes measured just prior to treatment, were most likely to have high levels of stuttering a year later, even though all subjects left therapy entirely fluent.” In related areas, research by Kolb, Winter, and Berlen (1968), McFall (1970), and McFall and Hammen (1971) has indicated that clients who are more motivated do better in behavior modification programs.Whether or not these findings may be generalized to children, in the midst of a developmental process, is purely speculative.     

The Impact of the Proportion of Women in One's Workgroup,Profession, and Friendship Circle on Males' and Females' Responses to Sexual Harassment

This study investigated the role of different gender contexts, gender, and their interactions on responses to sexual harassment using a sample of 213 professionals. Responses to sexual attention were better predicted than were gender harassment responses. The proportion of female friends was positively related to confronting harassers and formally reporting, the proportion of females in one's field was negatively related to formally reporting, and the proportion of female coworkers was negatively related to seeking legal counsel. Men were more likely to formally report and more likely to seek legal counsel, but unexpectedly, less likely to confront harassers. The proportion of women in one's field and friendship circle had a stronger impact on females' responses to harassment, but the proportion of women in one's workgroup had a stronger impact on males' responses. Results are discussed in light of sex roles and ethical decision-making theory.     

Is aversion to incest psychologically privileged? When sex and sociosexuality do not predict sexual willingness

As human possess powerful incest-avoidance mechanisms (which likely evolved due to the high costs of inbreeding), reactions to incestuous sexual encounters may be psychologically distinct from reactions to non-incestuous (but still non-normative) sexual encounters. Accordingly, variables such as sex and sociosexuality that normally predict openness to sexual encounters in other situations (i.e., men and sociosexually unrestricted people tend to be more sexually willing) may not do so – or do so only weakly – in incestuous situations. In Study 1, sociosexuality predicted negative judgments of non-incestuous (but still normatively proscribed) sexual acts, but not judgments of incestuous sexual acts. In Study 2, sociosexuality predicted negative reactions to imagined sex with biologically unrelated (but still normatively unusual) partners, but not reactions to imagined sex with related partners (this effect was limited to women); also, men reacted less negatively than women to imagined sex with unrelated partners, but men and women reacted equally negatively to imagined sex with related partners (the latter effect was limited to sociosexually restricted men).     

Sex typing and gender ideology: two facets of the individual's gender psychology that go together

Three studies tested the hypothesis that gendered personality dispositions are related to gender attitudes and gender discriminatory behaviors. In Study 1, sex-typed individuals were more likely than androgynous, undifferentiated, and cross-sex-typed individuals to accept gender rules designating culturally appropriate behavior for men and women. In Study 2, sex-typed individuals were particularly likely to pay attention spontaneously to the sex of job applicants and then to devalue the interview performances of women. In Study 3, only sex-typed men tended to endorse sexist language. As expected, sex typing and gender ideology go together. This relation between two facets of the individual's gender psychology indicates that some sex role inventories may tap more than expressivity and instrumentality.     

THE EFFECTS OF INTERRATER AND SELF-OTHER AGREEMENT ON PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT FOLLOWING UPWARD FEEDBACK

This study investigated (a) whether performance improvement following upward feedback is related to self-other rating discrepancies, (b) how self-ratings change after feedback, and (c) whether agreement among raters influences performance improvement. Self-ratings and subordinate ratings were collected from 1,888 managers at 2 points in time 1 year apart. Using polynomial regression equations, we determined that managers who overrated themselves relative to how others rated them tended to improve their performance from 1 year to the next, and underraters tended to decline. This is consistent with what would be predicted by self-consistency theory (Korman, 1976). Self-ratings tended to decrease for overraters and increase for underraters, but this effect was not constant throughout the range of self-ratings. Agreement among subordinate raters was negatively related to performance improvement, but this is likely a reflection of differential regression to the mean.     

Dimensions of depression and perfectionism in pregnant and nonpregnant women: their levels and interrelationships and their relationship to marital satisfaction

The authors studied S. J. Blatt's (1974) 2 dimensions of depression (anaclitic and introjective), P. L. Hewitt and G. L. Flett's (1991b) 3 dimensions of perfectionism (socially prescribed, self-oriented, and other-oriented), and the relationship between these and marital satisfaction in 100 married women in the last trimester of their first pregnancy and in 50 married women who had not yet experienced pregnancy. The measures used were the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (S. J. Blatt, J. P. D'Afflitti, & D. M. Quinlan. 1976a, 1976b), the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (P. L. Hewitt & G. L. Flett, 1989), and G. B. Spanier's (1976) Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Pregnant and nonpregnant women did not differ in anaclitic depression, but the level of introjective depression of pregnant women was lower than that of nonpregnant women. The two groups did not differ in level of marital satisfaction or in any of the dimensions of perfectionism. For both groups, introjective depression was positively correlated with socially prescribed perfectionism and negatively correlated with marital satisfaction. Self-oriented perfectionism was positively related to introjective depression and negatively related to marital satisfaction for nonpregnant women. For the pregnant women, there was a negative relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and marital satisfaction. Anaclitic depression and other-oriented perfectionism were unrelated to any of the other variables studied.     

The relationship of sex-role norms to couple and parental demographics

Four underlying, common sex role factors were identified via separate factor analyses on husbands' and wives' responses to a battery of Likert items tapping sex role norms. Canonical correlation analyses showed that sex role norms were significantly related to couple and parental demographics. Modern sex role norms were positively related to wife's education, occupational status and income, to wife's mother's occupation and work experience, and to husband's education, but negatively related to presence of young children.     

Changing family formation in Nepal: marriage, cohabitation and first sexual intercourse

CONTEXT: In Nepal, marriage occurs at a relatively young age and arranged weddings are widespread. However, recent changes in the family formation process and the timing of first sexual intercourse suggest that a transformation may be under way. METHODS: Data on marriage, cohabitation and first sexual intercourse from the 2001 Nepalese Demographic and Health Survey were used to describe the family formation process. The sequence of these events and the intervals between them were explored for currently married men and women. Hazard models were used to identify factors associated with behavioral changes over time. RESULTS: The average age at marriage among women married before age 20 increased from 13.7 years for those born in 1952-1956 to 15.6 years for those born in 1977-1981, while remaining relatively stable for men married before age 25 (17.3 years for the 1942-1946 birth cohort to 17.7 for the 1972-1976 birth cohort). After individual and couple characteristics were controlled for, younger age at interview was associated with greater odds of simultaneous marriage and cohabitation for both genders (odds ratios, 1.3-1.7). Younger age at interview was also associated with premarital sex among men--those aged 39 or younger had significantly higher risks than older men of having had premarital sex, with odds ratios rising from 1.6 among those aged 35-39 to 1.8 among those aged 15-24. CONCLUSIONS: It is important not only to promote education as a means of delaying marriage and childbearing, but also to implement programs and services that prevent reproductive health problems for young married couples.     

The development of sex typing: Themes from recent research

A conceptual framework for organizing the constructs and content areas included in research on sex typing is presented in this review of recent research on the development of sex typing. Two major themes are discussed. First, sex-typed play activities and interests emerge clearly in the first few years of life. Both play activities and peer preferences are sex typed earlier and more definitely than are personality traits and social behaviors such as aggression or dependency. It is suggested that researchers have underemphasized the importance of interests, activities, and peer associations while overemphasizing personality attributes as the core of sex typing. The second theme is that cognitions and concepts about sex typing are important in the acquisition of gender typing, but they are not sufficient by themselves for understanding the process by which sex-typed behavior is acquired. Children's sex-role concepts are sometimes related to their behavioral preferences, but other factors are also important influences on behavior.     

Gender differences in attitudes toward animal research

Although gender differences in attitudes toward animal research have been reported in the literature for some time, exploration into the nature of these differences has received less attention. This article examines gender differences in responses to a survey of attitudes toward the use of animals in research. The survey was completed by college students and consisted of items intended to tap different issues related to the animal research debate. Results indicated that women were more likely than men to support tenets of the animal protection movement. Likewise, women were more likely than men to favor increased restrictions on animal use and were more concerned than men about the suffering of research animals. Analysis of item contents suggested that women endorsed items reflecting a general caring for animals, were more willing than men to make personal sacrifices such as giving up meat and medical benefits in an effort to protect animals, and were more likely than men to question the use of animals in research on scientific grounds. Men, on the other hand, tended to emphasize the potential benefits arising from the use of animals in research.     

On Margot O;apos;Toole and the Baltimore Case: A Personal Note on the Evolution of My Involvement

Although gender differences in attitudes toward animal research have been reported in the literature for some time, exploration into the nature of these differences has received less attention. This article examines gender differences in responses to a survey of attitudes toward the use of animals in research. The survey was completed by college students and consisted of items intended to tap different issues related to the animal research debate. Results indicated that women were more likely than men to support tenets of the animal protection movement. Likewise, women were more likely than men to favor increased restrictions on animal use and were more concerned than men about the suffering of research animals. Analysis of item contents suggested that women endorsed items reflecting a general caring for animals, were more willing than men to make personal sacrifices such as giving up meat and medical benefits in an effort to protect animals, and were more likely than men to question the use of animals in research on scientific grounds. Men, on the other hand, tended to emphasize the potential benefits arising from the use of animals in research.     

Functional Impulsivity and Speeded Ability Test Performance

The current study examines the influence of functional impulsivity on speeded ability test performance. As predicted, functional impulsivity was positively related to number of items attempted (i.e., speed), but its impact on total score was more complex. In particular, analysis of the relations between ability, functional impulsivity and accuracy revealed evidence of a suppressor effect. Specifically, functional impulsivity was found to be negatively related to accuracy, but only after ability differences were controlled. Taken as whole, the current results suggest functional impulsivity may influence test‐taking behavior, but it likely does not result in a systematic influence on observed scores. Directions for further research needed to clarify these relations are discussed.     

Standing out from the crowd: personalization of graduation attire

During 1982 and 1983 college commencement ceremonies, a tally was made of students who displayed personal adornment in addition to their traditional academic garb. Degree conferred, sex of recipient, and year of graduation were related to the frequency and forms (political and nonpolitical) of adornment. Bachelor of Arts candidates were more likely to be adorned than were Bachelor of Science candidates, women were more likely to be adorned than were men, and 1982 graduates were more likely to be adorned than were 1983 graduates. The wearing of antinuclear protest ribbons varied as a function of degree but not as a function of sex, and the wearing of nonpolitical forms of adornment varied as a function of sex but not as a function of degree. Results indicate that personalization of graduation attire follows patterns reported in studies of secular dress and adornment. This correspondence between everyday and ritual clothing expressions suggests that the graduation ceremony may be a useful microcosm for future field studies of adolescents' attitudes and social differentiation.     

ITEM BIAS INDICES BASED ON TOTAL TEST SCORE AND JOB PERFORMANCE ESTIMATES OF ABILITY

Researchers (e.g., Ironson, 1982; Tenopyr, 1990) have suggested that item bias investigators equate subgroups on external criteria such as job performance rather than total test scores before considering subgroup passing rates on test items. In a study comparing these two approaches to studies of item bias, we found little evidence of bias using total test score as the estimate of overall examinee ability, but nearly all items were biased in comparisons of white and African-American subgroups on Numerical, Verbal, and Mechanical Reasoning tests and in male-female comparisons on a Mechanical Reasoning test when job performance was used to select "equally able" examinees. However, the use of job performance as the ability index is analogous to performance-based approaches to test bias (Hartigan & Wigdor, 1989; Thorndike, 1971) and directly equivalent to the Darlington (1971) and Cole (1973) test bias definition, the logical inconsistencies of which have been previously described (Hunter & Schmidt, 1976; Peterson & Novick, 1976). We conclude that performance matching as a basis of forming "equal ability" groups is inappropriate.     

Sex stereotypes in the united states revisited: 1972–1988

This was a 1988 replication of a sex stereotype study conducted in 1972. The new subjects were 100 university students who individually responded to each of the 300 items of the Adjective Check List by indicating whether it was more frequently associated with men or with women or was not differentially associated. For each item, an index score (0 to 100) was computed with high scores indicating association with males, low scores indicating association with females and scores in the mid-range indicating that the items were not sex stereotyped. The correlation between the 1972 and 1988 arrays of index scores across all 300 items was .90. No changes were found across the sixteen years in the affective meaning (Favorability, Strength and Activity) associated with the male and female stereotypes. In contrast, an analysis of the stereotypes in terms of Transactional Analysis ego states indicated that, across the time interval, the male stereotype decreased in Adult and Nurturing Parent and increased in Free Child, while the female stereotype decreased in Free Child and showed a trend toward an increase in Adult. It was concluded that while there had been some minor qualitative changes, there was no evidence that the two stereotypes had become less differentiated across the sixteen year period.This paper is based on a research report (Bergen, 1989) submitted to the Graduate Faculty at Wake Forest University. The first author is currently a doctoral student in counseling at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.     

Relationship between birth order, birth stress, and lateral preferences: a critical review

Reviews the literature examining the relationship between birth order, birth stress, and lateral preferences in nonclinical samples, with special emphasis on reports since 1971. The review found no evidence to relate birth order position to deviations from right-sidedness for either sex. More direct measures of birth stress indicated that deviations from right-handedness (particularly for male subjects), and also right-eyedness, were statistically related to specific birth stressors. It should be stressed, however, that all the relationships, including the significant ones, were very weak, accounting for less than 1% of the variance. When statistical significance was achieved, it was largely due to the huge sample sizes used in the meta-analyses. Methological and theoretical problems exist in the current literature, and we offer some suggestions to resolve them.