Failure Avoidance Motivation in a Goal-Setting Situation

Scholars have consistently identified contextual performance or organizational citizenship behavior as a core component of job performance. The current literature on this issue has been dominated by a single-level approach, typically conducted at the individual level of analysis. This study adopts a multilevel approach to simultaneously examine main effects of and cross-level interactions among individual- and group-level predictors of interpersonal helping behavior. Results from a large-scale longitudinal data set show that at the individual level, helping behavior was predicted by perceived organizational support (POS), fairness, and affective commitment. At the group level, helping behavior was predicted by trust among group members. Trust among members also significantly moderated the individual-level relationships between POS and helping behavior and between fairness and helping. These crosslevel moderations indicated that the group- and individual-level predictors were complementary (instead of mutually reinforcing) in predicting interpersonal helping behavior. This finding indicates that various antecedents of interpersonal helping are characterized by distinct dynamics at the individual and group levels of analysis.     

Individual and Contextual Predictors of Creative Performance: The Mediating Role of Psychological Processes

Studies on creativity have identified critical individual and contextual variables that contribute to individuals' creative performance. However, the psychological mechanisms through which these factors influence creative performance have not yet been systematically investigated. This study explored potential psychological processes that mediate the effects of various individual and contextual variables on the creative performance of individuals. The results, based on longitudinal, multisource data, show that underlying psychological processes (creative self-efficacy and creativity intention) completely mediated the effect of individual (motivation, personality, ability) and contextual factors (social influences from leaders and peers) on creative performance. This study informs the literature of potential psychological mechanisms through which individual and contextual factors influence the creative performance of individuals.     

Cognitive pathways of team climate for creativity: Implications for member creativity and job performance

ABSTRACT

The present study examines the contextual effects of team climate for creativity on creative behavior and job performance of employees. Drawing on the team-knowledge management perspective, we identify team-learning orientation and collective problem solving as main intermediate cognitive processes. The results, based on 856 employees across 102 work units of a high-tech company, demonstrate that these 2 team-level cognitive processes mediate the cross-level effects of team climate for creativity on creative behavior and job performance. This study reveals the cognitive ramifications of team climate for creativity as a favorable social context for employee creativity. By highlighting the cognitive process activated by team climate for creativity, this work complements existing studies focusing mostly on the affective and motivational mechanisms that underlie the team context–creativity relationship.     

Individual and Contextual Dynamics of Innovation-Use Behavior in Organizations

The innovation literature suggests that both organizational context and individual characteristics influence employees' innovation-use behavior. However, the question of how contextual factors and individual characteristics operate together to predict innovation-use behavior has remained ambiguous. This study examined 2 plausible ways that individual and perceived contextual variables can interplay to predict innovation-use behavior: mediation and moderation. The results, based on 191 employees of an electronics company, showed that 2 of the 3 relationships between perceived organizational context and innovation-use behavior were partially mediated by individual characteristics. In addition, in 1 of the 3 relationships examined, individual and contextual variables interacted to predict innovation-use behavior. This study contributes to the literature by conceptually integrating and empirically investigating the interplays between individual and contextual factors beyond their independent contributions to innovation-use behavior.     

An Integrative Model of Updating and Performance

Under conditions of rapid technological innovation, maintaining the technical competence of a firm's human resources becomes critical. This research developed a theoretical framework and model for updating. It was proposed that individual characteristics and contextual features would jointly affect perceptions of the job and the climate for updating. The perceptions would, in mm, mediate the relationship between the contextual features and individual responses of performance and updating. Data gathered from 483 engineers drawn from 220 subunits across seven organizations provided partial support. Context measures were significantly mediated by the perceptions. Individual characteristics, however, were directly linked to performance and updating responses. The results suggest that attempts to influence performance and updating may require modifications to the techno-structural aspects of work.     

The motivating potential of teams: Test and extension of cross-level model of motivation in teams

Although individual- and team-level studies of motivational processes abound, very few have sought to link such phenomena across levels. Filling this gap, we build upon Chen and Kanfer’s (2006) multilevel theoretical model of motivation in teams, to advance and test a cross-level model of relationships between individual and team motivation and performance. Data from two samples of undergraduates performing simulated team tasks supported the direct and mediated cross-level relationships between team-level prior performance, efficacy, and action processes with individual-level self-efficacy, goal striving, and performance. The findings provide support for a multilevel, system-based formulation of motivation and performance in teams. Findings also contribute to the on-going debate on whether motivational processes account for performance once controlling for prior performance.     

Doubly-Latent Models of School Contextual Effects: Integrating Multilevel and Structural Equation Approaches to Control Measurement and Sampling Error

This article is a methodological-substantive synergy. Methodologically, we demonstrate latent-variable contextual models that integrate structural equation models (with multiple indicators) and multilevel models. These models simultaneously control for and unconfound measurement error due to sampling of items at the individual (L1) and group (L2) levels and sampling error due the sampling of persons in the aggregation of L1 characteristics to form L2 constructs. We consider a set of models that are latent or manifest in relation to sampling items (measurement error) and sampling of persons (sampling error) and discuss when different models might be most useful. We demonstrate the flexibility of these 4 core models by extending them to include random slopes, latent (single-level or cross-level) interactions, and latent quadratic effects.

Substantively we use these models to test the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE), showing that individual student levels of academic self-concept (L1-ASC) are positively associated with individual level achievement (L1-ACH) and negatively associated with school-average achievement (L2-ACH)—a finding with important policy implications for the way schools are structured. Extending tests of the BFLPE in new directions, we show that the nonlinear effects of the L1-ACH (a latent quadratic effect) and the interaction between gender and L1-ACH (an L1 × L1 latent interaction) are not significant. Although random-slope models show no significant school-to-school variation in relations between L1-ACH and L1-ASC, the negative effects of L2-ACH (the BFLPE) do vary somewhat with individual L1-ACH.

We conclude with implications for diverse applications of the set of latent contextual models, including recommendations about their implementation, effect size estimates (and confidence intervals) appropriate to multilevel models, and directions for further research in contextual effect analysis.     

Substantive and operational issues of response bias across levels of analysis: an example of climate-satisfaction relationships

Two studies tested whether method variance is present at multiple levels of analysis and whether methodological procedures can minimize its impact. In Study 1, 8,052 employees from 71 hotels completed measures of climate, work environment characteristics, and satisfaction. A comparison of correlations at the individual level, cross-level, cross-level split, aggregate level, and aggregate-split level of analysis revealed that response bias was present across multiple levels. Results suggest that samples should be split in half when cross-level and aggregate correlations are computed to ameliorate response bias problems that arise from individual-level method variance. In Study 2, results indicated that the temporal spacing of measures of climate and satisfaction influenced response bias. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Impact of high-performance work systems on individual- and branch-level performance: test of a multilevel model of intermediate linkages

We proposed and tested a multilevel model, underpinned by empowerment theory, that examines the processes linking high-performance work systems (HPWS) and performance outcomes at the individual and organizational levels of analyses. Data were obtained from 37 branches of 2 banking institutions in Ghana. Results of hierarchical regression analysis revealed that branch-level HPWS relates to empowerment climate. Additionally, results of hierarchical linear modeling that examined the hypothesized cross-level relationships revealed 3 salient findings. First, experienced HPWS and empowerment climate partially mediate the influence of branch-level HPWS on psychological empowerment. Second, psychological empowerment partially mediates the influence of empowerment climate and experienced HPWS on service performance. Third, service orientation moderates the psychological empowerment-service performance relationship such that the relationship is stronger for those high rather than low in service orientation. Last, ordinary least squares regression results revealed that branch-level HPWS influences branch-level market performance through cross-level and individual-level influences on service performance that emerges at the branch level as aggregated service performance.     

成就目标导向、团队绩效控制对员工创造力的跨层次影响

成就目标导向在团队绩效控制情境下能否有效预测员工创造力是个值得关注的话题。以研发团队为研究对象, 运用线性阶层模型考察了三者间的跨层次关系。结果发现, 低绩效控制下, 精熟目标导向、表现–趋近导向对创造力有正向影响, 表现-回避导向有负向影响; 高绩效控制下, 精熟导向对创造力有“S型”非线性影响, 表现-回避导向有正向影响。结果表明, 高精熟目标导向在高绩效控制情境下抑制员工创造力, 而表现导向也并非总是与缺乏创造力联系起来, 提高表现-回避导向个体的绩效控制程度或者降低表现-趋近导向个体的绩效控制程度同样可以促进创造力。启示在于, 管理者不仅应关注成就导向的个体差异, 更应重视构建相应的绩效控制情境, 从二者交互作用出发激活员工创造力。     

Contextualization of Survey Data: What Do We Gain and Does It Matter?

Survey research designs that integrate contextual data have become more prevalent in recent decades, presumably to enable a more refined focus on the person as the unit of analysis and a greater emphasis on interindividual differences due to social forces and contextual conditions. This article reviews varied approaches to contextualizing survey data and examines the value of linking two data sources to respondent information: interviewer ratings and neighborhood information (measured via census tracts). The utility of an integrative approach is illustrated with data from the Health and Retirement Study. The results reveal modest gains by using a contextualized approach but also demonstrate that neglecting contextual factors may lead to misdirected substantive conclusions, especially for older racial and ethnic minorities. To enhance the ecological validity of survey data, investigators should select theoretically-meaningful contextual data for specific research questions and consider cross-level interactions.     

Transformational and transactional leaderships,empowerment climate,and innovation performance: A multilevel analysis in the Chinese context

Innovation through creativity is an important factor in the success and competitive advantage of organizations. Theory and research suggest that both leadership and organizational climate have important consequences for individual creativity. However, researchers have rarely considered the interactive effects of leadership and organizational climate. This study taking a “Substitute for Leadership” perspective, develops and tests the idea that empowerment climate affect the relationship between leadership and followers' creative performance. Data were collected from 93 teams, including 465 team members and 93 team supervisors, in a large multinational company based in China. Hierarchical linear modelling was used to examine the hypothesized cross-level model. As expected, transformational leadership and team empowerment climate were positively related to subordinates' creative performance and transactional leadership was negatively related to subordinates' creative performance. In addition, the relationship between leadership and subordinates' creative performance was moderated by team empowerment climate. The study resulted in the implication of several major variables for explaining individual creativity in the Chinese context.     

Relations Between Contextual Performance,Personality, and Occupational Advancement

Two studies investigated relations between supervisors' evaluations of contextual performance and personality characteristics in jobs where opportunities for advance- ment were either absent or present. The first study examined performance in entry- level jobs where advancement, in general, was precluded; employees (N = 214) completed the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) as applicants and subsequently were rated by their supervisors for contextual performance. Results indicated that conscientiousness-measured by HPI Prudence scores-was significantly related to ratings of Work Dedication and Interpersonal Facilitation, which are dimensions of contextual performance. The results were corroborated in an independent sample. In the second study, employees (N = 288) in jobs with opportunities for advancement completed the HPI and their supervisors provided ratings for contextual performance. Results indicated that ambitiodsurgency-measured by HPI Ambition scores-pre- dicted contextual performance. These results also were confirmed in a second sample. Relations between personality and contextual performance are explained by the motives of cooperation-getting along-and status-getting ahead.     

Rapid Word Recognition as a Measure of Word-Level Automaticity and its Relation to Other Measures of Reading

The present study investigated the relationship between rapid recognition of individual words (Word Recognition Test) and two measures of contextual reading: (1) grade-level Passage Reading Test (IRI passage) and (2) performance on standardized STAR Reading Test. To estabilish if time of presentation on the word recognition test was a factor in predicting contextual reading performance, four computerized presentation times were used: 300 msec, 650 msec, 1000 msec, adn 2000 msec. Regression analyses revealed that, for both third- and fourth-grade students, there was evidence that presentation times of less than 1 second better approximated performance on the two contextual reading measures.     

Doing the right thing without being told: joint effects of initiative climate and general self-efficacy on employee proactive customer service performance

We developed and tested a cross-level model of the antecedents and outcomes of proactive customer service performance. Results from a field study of 900 frontline service employees and their supervisors in 74 establishments of a multinational hotel chain located in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia demonstrated measurement equivalence and suggested that, after controlling for service climate, initiative climate at the establishment level and general self-efficacy at the individual level predicted employee proactive customer service performance and interacted in a synergistic way. Results also showed that at the establishment level, controlling for service climate and collective general service performance, initiative climate was positively and indirectly associated with customer service satisfaction through the mediation of aggregated proactive customer service performance. We discuss important theoretical and practical implications of these findings.     

团队内隐异质性：内涵拓展及其效能机制

从内隐异质性的内涵维度及其效能机制, 包括内隐异质性作用于绩效的中间过程和情境因素、内隐异质性和外显异质性的交互作用、团队断裂带和内隐异质性的跨层次研究方面阐述了团队内隐异质性研究的最新成果和进展, 并在此基础上提出了未来研究的一个整合框架。未来的研究需要在内隐异质性内涵维度及其前因变量、内隐异质性的跨层次研究、团队断裂带及其与团队结果变量之间关系、社会网络背景下内隐异质性与团队绩效之间的关系等方面进一步探索。     

个体情绪智力与任务绩效：社会网络的视角

基于社会网络视角, 分别以社会资本的关系性维度为中介变量, 以社会资本的结构性维度为跨层调节变量, 探讨了个体情绪智力对任务绩效的影响。通过收集模拟网络实验背景中46个项目团队210位个体的调查数据, 运用多元统计分析方法对提出的假设模型进行了实证检验。研究发现：在控制个性的前提下, 关系性社会资本在个体情绪智力影响任务绩效过程中起到中介作用, 结构性社会资本(咨询网络密度)跨层正向调节影响个体情绪智力与任务绩效的关系。结果表明, 不同层次的社会资本及其维度在情绪智力影响绩效过程中扮演着不同角色, 运用社会资本概念框架有助于解释情绪智力的作用机制。     

Practice schedule and cognitive style interaction in learning a maze task

In the present study the effects of contextual interference on the retention and transfer performance of reflectives and impulsives on a maze task were studied. Forty-seven subjects were randomly assigned to either a high contextual interference group or to a low contextual interference group. Within the two groups subjects were further classified according to their preferred modes of responding. Retention and transfer were measured immediately following practice and after a 4-week delay. The dependent variables were tracing time and errors. Reflectives made fewer errors and moved more quickly after practising under conditions of high contextual interference. Impulsives tended to have fewer errors after practising under conditions of high contextual interference but moved more slowly. Based on these results it was suggested that trainers consider individual differences in reflectivity-impulsivity before designing particular practice schedules.     

A CROSS-LEVEL INVESTIGATION OF FACTORS INFLUENCING UNSAFE BEHAVIORS AND ACCIDENTS

Several recent reviews of industrial accidents have given increased attention to the role of organizational factors as antecedents to the accident sequence. In the current study, three group-level factors (i.e., group process, safety climate, and intentions to approach other team members engaged in unsafe acts) and one individual-level factor (i.e., perceptions of role overload) were hypothesized to influence the frequency of reported unsafe behaviors using a cross-level research strategy. Data were collected from 21 teams and 222 individuals in a Midwestern chemical processing plant. Both the individual and group-level variables were significantly associated with unsafe behaviors, thereby supporting the cross-level hypotheses. There was also initial evidence suggesting that the group process-unsafe behavior relationship was mediated by intentions to approach other team members engaged in unsafe acts. At the team level of analysis, safety climate and unsafe behaviors were significantly associated with actual accidents. Group process and approach intentions were marginally related to actual accidents ( p < .10). The implications for a cross-level approach to safety and interventions is discussed.