Sexual Self‐Control and Male Condom‐Use Outcome Beliefs: Predicting Heterosexual Men's Condom‐Use Intentions and Behavior1

A model of condom‐use intentions and behavior that we previously developed for women was replicated and extended with heterosexual men (n= 203; M age = 20.1 years). The general determinants of intentions to use condoms were consistent for men and women. The predictors of general condom attitudes and condom‐use self‐efficacy differed across gender. Male condom‐use outcome beliefs and sexual self‐control emerged as predictors of sexually experienced men's condom attitudes and self‐efficacy, respectively. In a 3‐month follow‐up, intentions and sexual self‐control predicted condom‐use behavior. These findings have implications for specificity vs. generality in the correlates of common behaviors across groups, the study of gender differences in condom use, and the development of intervention content targeted to specific populations.     

Predictors of Condom Use in Mexican Migrant Laborers

The purpose of this study was to explore predictors of condom use with occasional sex partners and regular sex partners, as well as carrying condoms in a new high-risk group for HIV infection, Mexican migrant laborers. This study extends previous findings by (1) exploring additional predictors not previously examined, (2) utilizing a large sample of male and female Mexican migrant laborers, (3) carefully controlling for the effects of various demographic and lifestyle variables related to condom use, and (4) assessing the interactive effects of gender on predictors of condom use. Snowball sampling was used to survey 501 adult Mexican migrant laborers. Results revealed that condom use with occasional sex partners was predicted by carrying condoms and condom self-efficacy and that women were more likely to use condoms with occasional partners when both men and women knew someone with HIV/AIDS. Condom use with regular sex partners was predicted by procondom social norms, less negative attitudes toward condoms, not knowing someone with HIV/AIDS, and condom self-efficacy. Carrying condoms was predicted by procondom social norms, less negative attitudes toward condoms, condom self-efficacy, worry about contracting HIV/AIDS, and women were more likely than men to carry condoms when both men and women were married. Understanding these findings, future research directions, and implications for condom promotion strategies with Mexican migrant laborers are discussed.     

Implicit Hopelessness and Condom Use Frequency: Exploring Nonconscious Predictors of Sexual Risk Behavior1

Current models of affect and health posit that affective disturbance influences health through behavioral pathways. The current research explores this hypothesis in the domain of sexual risk behavior by testing explicit and implicit hopelessness as predictors of condom use. Male and female undergraduates (n = 60) completed implicit and explicit measures of depression, hopelessness, and self‐reported condom use frequency. Findings revealed that implicit hopelessness predicted less condom use. However, this relationship was moderated by gender such that implicit hopelessness predicted less condom use for men, but not for women. The applicability of the findings to broader health theories is discussed.     

Using Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies to Predict Condom Use Among a General Sample of Men and Women in the United States

Sex-related alcohol expectancies (SRAE) are known to moderate the relationship between alcohol use and risky sexual behavior in high risk populations; however, SRAEs have not been thoroughly explored in populations traditionally viewed at lower risk for HIV and/or STI. Participants (n = 649) were recruited through internet-based direct marketing in the United States. Predictors of SRAE vary by gender. Controlling for alcohol use and other predictors, age predicted condom use among women, and SRAE was correlated with condom use for men. Sexual health programming geared towards non-traditionally identified high-risk populations is necessary and provides unique opportunities to increase condom usage.     

Intentions to Use the Female Condom Among African American Adults1

The present study tested whether the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and self‐efficacy for female condom use predicted intentions to use the female condom among African American adults. Participants were 137 men and women, 18 to 35 years of age, who were recruited from a community‐based organization. Results indicate that: (a) the TRA model has predictive utility for women's but not for men's intentions to use the female condom with both main and casual sex partners, and (b) the TRA model was a better predictor of intentions to use the female condom with main than with casual partners. Implications for female condom‐use promotion are discussed.     

The pros and cons of temporally near and distant action

The present research demonstrated that in considering an action, considerations against (con) the action tend to be subordinate to considerations in favor of (pro) the action in that cons are considered only if the level of pros is sufficient, whereas pros are considered independent of the level of cons (Studies 1A and IB). The authors therefore concluded that pros constitute a higher construal level than cons and predict, on the basis of temporal construal processes (Y. Trope & N. Liberman. 2003). that pros would be more salient in making decisions for the more distant future, whereas the reverse should hold for cons. As predicted, participants generated more pros and fewer cons toward new exam procedures (Study 2), public policies (Study 3), and personal and interpersonal behaviors (Studies 4-6) that were expected to take place in the more distant future. This research also examined the limiting conditions and the evaluative consequences of these shifts.     

Integration of five health behaviour models: Common strengths and unique contributions to understanding condom use

The purpose of this research was to select from the health belief model (HBM), theories of reasoned action (TRA) and planned behaviour (TPB), information–motivation–behavioural skills model (IMB) and social cognitive theory (SCT) the strongest longitudinal predictors of women's condom use and to combine these constructs into a single integrated model of condom use. The integrated model was evaluated for prediction of condom use among young women who had steady versus casual partners. At Time 1, all constructs of the five models and condom use were assessed in an initial and a replication sample (n?=?193, n?=?161). Condom use reassessed 8 weeks later (Time 2) served as the main outcome. Information from IMB, perceived susceptibility, benefits, and barriers from HBM, self-efficacy and self-evaluative expectancies from SCT, and partner norm and attitudes from TPB served as indirect or direct predictors of condom use. All paths replicated across samples. Direct predictors of behaviour varied with relationship status: self-efficacy significantly predicted condom use for women with casual partners, while attitude and partner norm predicted for those with steady partners. Integrated psychosocial models, rich in constructs and relationships drawn from multiple theories of behaviour, may provide a more complete characterisation of health protective behaviour.     

College Women and Condom Use: Importance of Partner Relationship

Because women who want to use condoms as protection against STDs must gain compliance from their male partners, women's use of condoms was examined within the context of their relationships with their sexual partners. Sexual history, condom attitudes, and relationship information were gathered from a sample of 272 heterosexual college women. For the 121 women with a current sexual partner, logistic regression analyses revealed that both regular condom use and completely consistent condom use were more likely in shorter relationships and for women who perceived lower barriers to use. Regular condom use was also greater in relationships described as high in trust, whereas consistent condom use was greater for women in their first sexual relationships. In addition, many women reported using condoms early in their relationships, but changing to lower levels of use later. Implications of the current findings for safer-sex interventions are discussed.     

Integration of five health behaviour models: common strengths and unique contributions to understanding condom use

The purpose of this research was to select from the health belief model (HBM), theories of reasoned action (TRA) and planned behaviour (TPB), information-motivation-behavioural skills model (IMB) and social cognitive theory (SCT) the strongest longitudinal predictors of women's condom use and to combine these constructs into a single integrated model of condom use. The integrated model was evaluated for prediction of condom use among young women who had steady versus casual partners. At Time 1, all constructs of the five models and condom use were assessed in an initial and a replication sample (n?=?193, n?=?161). Condom use reassessed 8 weeks later (Time 2) served as the main outcome. Information from IMB, perceived susceptibility, benefits, and barriers from HBM, self-efficacy and self-evaluative expectancies from SCT, and partner norm and attitudes from TPB served as indirect or direct predictors of condom use. All paths replicated across samples. Direct predictors of behaviour varied with relationship status: self-efficacy significantly predicted condom use for women with casual partners, while attitude and partner norm predicted for those with steady partners. Integrated psychosocial models, rich in constructs and relationships drawn from multiple theories of behaviour, may provide a more complete characterisation of health protective behaviour.     

Barriers to condom use in primary and nonprimary relationships among Hispanic STD clinic patients

Some programs designed to reduce the spread of AIDS and other STDs encourage consistent condom use among sexually active, at-risk individuals. A random sample of 283 Hispanic men and women seeking services at a public STD clinic in New York City were surveyed in an examination of differences in their attitudinal patterns, normative beliefs, and practices related to condom use with primary and nonprimary sex partners. 60% of the participants were male. The group was of mean age 30.9 years, with 46% having graduated from high school. 44.5% were born in the US, although 73.8% had lived in mainland US for the previous ten years or longer. 52.7% were single, 19.8% married, and the remaining 27.5% were either divorced, separated, or widowed. Only 3.2% of men and women reported having same-sex relationships, although the authors suggest that the respondents may have underreported the extent of their bisexual and homosexual behavior. 58.3% of men and 53.3% of women reported having had a prior STD, 82.2% of men and 74.8% of women had experience using a condom, and 31.3% of men and 13.3% of women reported having nonprimary partners. Both the men and women report that they are more likely to use condoms in nonprimary than primary relationships and that they perceive fewer barriers to doing so. Issues related to trust and social acceptability are more salient in primary relationships. Interventions to promote condom use among Hispanics must acknowledge the different psychosocial influences upon condom use in different relationships and target the specific attitudinal and behavioral changes desired.     

Condom Use and Contraception Non-Use Amongst 16-19 Year Olds: A Within Subjects Comparison

Abstract

The present study used a within subject design to examine which situation specific factors discriminated between the use of condoms and non-use of contraception in the context of preventing unwanted pregnancy. Adapting the methodology of Gold et al (1991, 1992), 215 16 to 19 year olds completed a questionnaire concerning the most recent time they had experienced sexual intercourse without using contraception (the “without contraception” encounter) and me most recent time they had experienced sexual intercourse using a condom (the “with a condom” encounter). The results showed that although past behaviour did not differentiate between the two encounters, situational factors relating to preparation for action, affect and interpersonal interaction were important. However, when analysed for men and women separately most of the differences were only found for women. In particular, the results suggest that women report non-contraception use as associated with feeling more guilty, having a partner who is less motivated to use contraception than they are, with neither themselves nor their partner raising the desire to use contraception, not expecting to have sex and not discussing contraception and not having contraception available. In contrast, for men, only the availability of contraception appeared to differentiate between the two encounters. The results are discussed in terms of the usefulness of the methodology and the associated shift in emphasis from users and non-users of contraception to use and non-use. The implications of the results in terms of health education interventions are also considered.     

Attitudes toward condoms as AIDS prophylaxis in homosexual men: dimensions and measurement

Increases in condom use among homosexually active men are crucial to containing the spread of AIDS. The present study examined the components of attitudes and beliefs toward condom use in homosexual and bisexual men using a modified version of Brown's Attitude toward condoms scale. Factor analysis revealed 5 clear dimensions: viewing condoms as unreliable and unerotic; as protection from infection; as unavailable when needed; as interrupting sex; and viewing condoms as a responsibility and being comfortable with condom use. 5 subscales constructed from these dimensions differentiated significantly between homosexual men who used condoms frequently and infrequently or never. 4 of the subscales (except Protection form Infection subscale) differentiated frequency of oral condom use; only the Responsibility and Comfort with Condom Use subscale differentiated frequency of anal condom use. The Homosexual Attitudes toward Condom use scale demonstrates that: dimensions of beliefs and attitudes toward condom use in homosexually active men differ substantially from those in heterosexual individuals; a reliable and valid scale for measuring such attitudes now exists; factors influencing condom use in this population differ for oral and anal intercourse; and this scale enables further research on determinants of condom use, and effects of modifying attitudes toward condom use in homosexually active men to be carried out.     

HIV-protection through condom use: Testing the theory of planned behaviour in a community sample of heterosexual men in a high-income country

Given the increasing importance of heterosexual HIV-transmission in Europe and Switzerland, the present study tested the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) in a prospective study on the HIV-protection behaviour in a community sample of heterosexual men. The study focused on condom use in sexual encounters with new partners. Participants were 982 Swiss men between the ages of 25 and 65 who were surveyed using standardised questionnaires in two computer-assisted telephone interviews that took place in autumn 2002 and spring 2003. The TPB was able to predict condom use in sexual encounters with new and casual partners. In accordance with the theory, condom use was predicted by intention. Perceived behavioural control and attitude were significant predictors of intention, whereas subjective norm was not. Thus, in line with other studies, the present study highlighted the somewhat limited explanatory power of the theory. Further theoretical and empirical work is needed to develop extensions to the theory.     

Self-Efficacy to Use Condoms in Unmarried Latino Adults

Measures of self-efficacy to use condoms can clarify the barriers to condom use Latinos encounter. A 20-item scale, that differed slightly for men and women, and was based on extensive elicitation interviews, was used in a random digit dial household survey of 1,600 unmarried Latino adults in 10 states with large Latino populations. Self-efficacy was related to condom use for both men and women. Factor analyses revealed five correlated factors: Regular Partner, Impulse Control, Partner Resistance, STD Thoughts, and Condom Discussion. Both men and women reported lowest self-efficacy for impulse control and using condoms with a regular partner. Less-educated men and women had lower self-efficacy to discuss condoms, to manage partner resistance, to use condoms with a regular partner, and to control impulses, but there were few other demographic differences in self-efficacy. The scale can be helpful in the design and evaluation of HIV prevention.     

Effect of Persuasive Appeals in AIDS PSAs and Condom Commercials on Intentions to Use Condoms1

The study compared the effect of five persuasive appeals used in AIDS PSAs and condom commercials (fear arousal-no sex/condom theme; fear arousal-sex/condom theme; erotic; humorous; factual) on 122 male and 114 female college students' i]ntentions to use and taking of condoms. Results showed that the two fear appeals were more effective than other appeals in increasing intentions to use condoms with a new partner. The fear appeal–no sex/condom theme was more effective than other appeals for increasing intentions to use condoms with a steady partner. Compared to men, women rated commercials as more effective for increasing intentions to use condoms with a new partner. Persuasive appeals had no effect on the taking of free condoms. The best predictor of commercial effectiveness was the degree to which a commercial evoked a high fear of AIDS. Other significant predictors were subjects' a]ttitude toward condom use and commercial qualities of being humorous, romantic, credible, and factual. Implications are that all five types of appeals are potentially effective for use in AIDS PSAs. Recommendations include combining appeals (e.g. fear with erotic) and emphasizing the positive features of condom use.     

Belief in a Just World and Condom Use in a Sample of Gay and Bisexual Men1

Research has shown that, under certain conditions, people with a strong belief in a just world (BJW) perceive themselves to be less at risk for serious negative events (e.g., contracting AIDS). We extended this work by investigating the relation between BJW and high‐risk sexual behavior Gay and bisexual men (N= 102) responded to a questionnaire that measured individual differences in BJW, personality characteristics related to perceived relationship threat (e.g., interpersonal control), and frequency of condom use and anal intercourse. Results generally supported predictions. For example, among respondents low in interpersonal control, a strong BJW was associated with less frequent condom use. These results have implications for research on BJW, as well as research on the predictors of high‐risk sexual behavior.     

Using the Theory of Planned Behavior to Predict Intention to Use Condoms Among Male and Female Injecting Drug Users

This study tested the utility of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) for understanding and predicting condom use intentions among male and female injecting drug users (IDUs). Interviews were conducted with 405 male and 315 female sexually active IDUs. Participants indicated their intentions to use condoms with main and nonmain sexual partners as well as attitudes, social norms, partner norms, and perceived behavioral control relevant to condom use with each partner type. The TPB accounted for 36 to 48% of the variance in intentions to use condoms. Intentions were related to attitudes, regardless of partner type. Partner norms were related to intentions to use condoms with main partners (men and women) and nonmain partners (men only). Social norms did not predict intentions, regardless of partner type. Perceived behavioral control was related to intentions to use condoms with main partners (men and women) and nonmain partners (women only). The findings are interpreted in light of the roles of cooperation, intimacy, and concern about self-protection.     

Attitudes toward condoms as AIDS prophylaxis in homosexual men: Dimensions and measurement

Abstract

Increases in condom use among homosexually active men are crucial to containing the spread of AIDS. The present study examined the components of attitudes and beliefs toward condom use in homosexual and bisexual men using a modified version of Brown's Attitude toward condoms scale. Factor analysis revealed five clear dimensions: viewing condoms as unreliable and unerotic; as protection from infection; as unavailable when needed; as interrupting sex; and viewing condoms as a responsibility and being comfortable with condom use. Five subscales constructed from these dimensions differentiated significantly between homosexual men who used condoms frequently and infrequently or never. Four of the subscales (excepting the Protection from Infection subscale) differentiated frequency of oral condom use; only the Responsibility and Comfort with Condom Use subscale differentiated frequency of anal condom use. The Homosexual Attitudes toward Condom Use scale demonstrates that (1) dimensions of beliefs and attitudes toward condom use in homosexually active men differ substantially from those in heterosexual individuals; (2) a reliable and valid scale for measuring such attitudes now exists; (3) factors influencing condom use in this population differ for oral and anal intercourse; (4) this scale enables further research on determinants of condom use, and effects of modifying attitudes toward condom use, in homosexually active men to be carried out.     

Application of an Integrated Behavioral Model to Predict Condom Use: A Prospective Study Among High HIV Risk Groups1

An integrated theoretical model using constructs from multiple behavioral models was applied to understand and predict condom use among a sample of injecting drug users, commercial sex workers, men who have sex with men, and multipartnered heterosexuals. Elicitation interviews were conducted to develop a questionnaire to measure model constructs that may be predictive of condom use for sex with vaginal, anal, and oral regular and casual partners. A prospective survey design was used, with 993 participants interviewed at Time 1, and 686 returning for Time 2 interviews 3 months later. Regression analyses were conducted using Time 1 measures to predict intention and Time 2 behavior. Strong support was found for a model that includes attitude, social norm, and facilitators/constraints as predictors of behavior, with multiple correlations in the 0.20 to 0.40 range. Findings also indicate perceived control and facilitators/constraints are distinct constructs and both, along with attitude and social norm, contribute to explaining behavioral intention. Implications for intervention development are discussed.     

Condom Use Among U.S. Students: The Importance of Confidence in Normative and Attitudinal Perceptions

Abstract

The author performed a study among U.S. undergraduates to test an earlier conclusion (D. Trafimow, 1994) that confidence in the correctness of one's perceptions of normative pressure to use a condom influences the correspondence between those perceptions and the intentions actually to perform the behavior. Consistent with previous findings (Trafimow), the participants' perceptions of normative pressure strongly predicted their intentions to use condoms only under conditions of extreme normative confidence. Otherwise, their attitudes were better predictors of their intentions to use condoms. In addition, 2 other variables (attitudinal confidence and perceived behavioral control) were found to be unimportant predictors of intentions. Results of a 2nd study suggest that behaviors performed by sexual partners and knowing the sexual partners affected the participants' normative confidence.