CORRELATES OF SEX-TYPING IN FIJI

The effects of sex-typing on self-esteem, achievement orientation, and attitudes toward women were examined in Fiji using 600 secondary school and 240 university students. As Spence and Helmreich (1978) found in the U.S., sex-typing effects were strong on all variables, with Androgynous and Masculine students scoring highest on Self-esteem, Mastery, Work Orientation and Competitiveness, and Undifferentiated students scoring lowest. Sex-typing interacted with sex on the Attitudes Toward Women Scale. The effects were stronger among secondary school students than among university students. As in the U.S., sex differences were less marked than sex-typing differences, although there were fewer sex differences on these measures in Fiji than in the U.S. The importance of instrumental traits in achievement orientation and self-esteem was confirmed in a vastly different cultural setting, suggesting the possibility of pancultural generality of sex-typing effects.     

Gender role and personality disorders

Many researchers have hypothesized relationships between personality disorders and gender role (i.e., masculinity and femininity). However, research has not addressed if people who are masculine or feminine more often meet the criteria for personality disorders. The present study examined whether college students (N = 665, 60% women) higher in masculinity or femininity more often exhibited features of the 10 DSM-IV personality disorders. Feminine men exhibited more features of all the personality disorders except antisocial. Dependent traits were associated with higher femininity and lower masculinity. Antisocial traits were associated with masculinity. Both men and women who typically behaved consistent with their gender had more narcissistic and histrionic features, whereas participants who typically behaved unlike their gender had more features of the Cluster A personality disorders.     

Sex role group differences in specific, academic, and general self-efficacy

The primary purpose of this study was to examine sex role group differences (androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated) in three different levels of self-efficacy (general, academic, and course specific). A sample of 215 undergraduate participants completed the three measures of self-efficacy and the sex role measure. Results showed that there was a multivariate significance among the sex role groups in the three levels of self-efficacy and that both masculine and androgynous groups had significantly higher general and academic efficacy means than the undifferentiated or feminine groups. The major findings in this study are largely consistent with findings of previous researchers, supporting the theory that masculinity may be a key construct in the differentiation of individuals in self-efficacy, which has been shown to be an important predictor of achievement.     

Why are there sex differences in risky driving? the relationship between sex and gender‐role on aggressive driving,traffic offences,and accident involvement among young turkish drivers

The aim of this study was to investigate how sex (male and female) and gender‐role (masculinity and femininity) and their interaction were associated with risky driving behaviors, traffic offences, and accident involvement among young Turkish drivers. Three‐hundred and fifty‐four young drivers (221 males and 133 females) filled in a form including the short form of Bem Sex‐Role Inventory (BSRI), the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ), questions about a driver's accident history, and background information. The effects were tested on outcome variables by using hierarchical regression analysis. It was found that sex (being male) predicted only the ordinary violations. While masculinity score predicted positively the number of offences, and aggressive and ordinary (highway code) violations, femininity score predicted negatively the number of accidents and offences, aggressive and ordinary violations, and errors. The effect of interaction between masculinity and femininity was only found on the number of accidents and aggressive violations among young drivers. There was no significant interaction effect between sex and gender roles on criterion variables. Aggr. Behav. 00:1–12, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Sex,hypermasculinity, and hyperfemininity in perception of social cues in neutral interactions

Sexual coercion is a prevalent problem on U.S. college campuses. One potential avenue by which it may occur is the misinterpretation of social cues, and such misperception may be mediated by extreme sex role adherence, i.e., hypermasculinity and hyperfemininity. 62 undergraduate students viewed a film of a neutral interaction between a college-aged man and woman. Subsequently, participants indicated which behaviors they remembered the opposite-sex actor performing, offered a prediction as to the outcome of the scenario and what they would do had they been in a similar situation, and then completed either the Hypermasculinity Inventory or the Hyperfemininity Scale. Scores on the former correlated negatively with recall accuracy, and men indicated that they were more likely to date and have sex with the actress than women reported being likely to date or have sex with the actor. Women reported a high perceived likelihood of dating the actor coupled with the expectation that he would have sex with the actress. Likewise, women expected to be sexually coerced by the actor had they been in a similar situation. Social implications of these findings and possible research are discussed.     

Dimensions of Masculinity and Femininity: A Self-Report Inventory

A self-report inventory was designed to assess a wide assortment of traits alleged to be components of masculinity or femininity and traits in which sex differences have been found. Factor analyses of data from men, women, and a combined sample revealed 12 recurring factors. Four of the factors reprint aspects of femininity, and six represent aspects of masculinity. Of the remaining two factors one is a bipolar factor contrasting a feminine quality with a masculine one, and the other represents a trait that can assume tither a masculine or a feminine form. Subsequent factor analyses of data from a shortened questionnaire showed the factors to be reasonably replicable. This research underscores the multidimensionality of masculinity and femininity.     

Relationships of Objective and Projective Dependency Scores to Sex Role Orientation in College Student Participants

Research on the dependency-sex rote orientation relationship indicates that when objective dependency measures are used, participants show positive correlations between dependency and femininity scores, and negative correlations between dependency and masculinity scores. In this study, a mixed-sex sample of 87 undergraduates (47 women and 40 men) completed widely used objective and projective measures of dependency, and a self-report measure of sex role orientation. Consistent with previous studies in this area, high objective dependency scores were associated with high femininity scores and low masculinity scores in participants of both sexes. There were no relationships between projective dependency scores and sex role orientation scores in participants of either sex. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical frameworks that distinguish implicit dependency needs from "self-attributed" dependency needs. The role that sex role socialization experiences play in determining participants' willingness to acknowledge dependency-related traits and behaviors on self-report tests is also discussed.     

Sex and sex role self-concept as correlates of career decision-making self-efficacy

The relationships between sex and sex-role self-concept on the one hand, and career decision-making self-efficacy (CDMSE) on the other, were tested using data from 85 undergraduate business studies students. As predicted, self-concept masculinity showed a strong positive relationship with CDMSE, and self-concept femininity showed a weak positive relationship. Contrary to prediction, sex was also significantly correlated with CDMSE, though only weakly. The results add further weight to evidence that self-concept outweighs biological sex in some aspects of career development.     

Measuring a macho personality constellation

A Hypermasculinity Inventory was developed to measure a macho personality constellation consisting of three components: (a) calloused sex attitudes toward women, (b) violence as manly, and (c) danger as exciting. The 30 forced-choice items were selected by a two-stage internal consistency item analysis. Issues of substantive and structural validity were addressed by considering item content, test format, homogeneity of items, and the factor structure of items. The Cronbach α coefficient for the Hypermasculinity Inventory was .89 in the present sample of 135 college men. External validity was assessed by correlating scores of the Hypermasculinity Inventory with self-reported drug use, r(135) = .26, p < .01, aggressive behavior r(135) = .65, p < .001, and dangerous driving, r(136) = .47, p < .001, following alcohol consumption, and delinquent behavior during the high school years, r(135) = .38, p < .01. Construct validity was supported further by a pattern of theoretically meaningful correlations with the Personality Research Form (D. N. Jackson, 1974, Goshen, NY: Research Psychologists Press). The discussion considered further research that is needed to adduce additional evidence for the construct validity of the Hypermasculinity Inventory as a measure of the macho personality pattern.     

Sex role orientation and domains of self-esteem

The relation of sex role orientation to self-esteem was more closely examined by the inclusion of five distinct self-esteem domains in this study of Chinese adolescents. Analysis of variance showed that the masculine and androgynous groups were superior in academic, appearance, and general self-esteem than the feminine and undifferentiated groups. The former two groups were also higher in physical ability self-esteem than the feminine group. The superiority of the androgynous group was noted in the domain of social self-esteem too. Results of multiple regression were in general supportive of the masculinity model in that masculinity was most strongly associated with self-esteem, whereas the effect of femininity was much less evident. Analyses also showed that for males, femininity was related to academic, appearance, and general self-esteem, whereas for females, femininity was found somewhat related to social self-esteem. Results of this study were discussed in terms of the agentic and expressive qualities of different sex role and self-esteem domains.The very capable assistance in data analysis by Kit Yi Wong is gratefully acknowledged.     

Sex role orientation and dimensions of self-esteem among middle adolescents

A questionnaire study of 229 high-school students examined the relationship between sex role orientation and various dimensions of self-esteem. The results provide strong support for the masculinity model self-esteem, especially for females. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed the following: (a) females perceived themselves to be significantly more socially competent than males; (b) males perceived themselves to be more physically competent than females; (c) adolescents high on masculinity perceived themselves to be significantly more socially competent, physically competent, and to have higher general self-esteem than those low on masculinity; (d) males and females high on masculinity perceived themselves to be significantly more physically competent and to have higher general self-esteem than females low on masculinity, although males low on masculinity did not differ significantly from any of the other interaction groups. Regression analyses by gender revealed the following: (a) the contribution of masculinity to social competence was much greater for females than for males, (b) the contribution of masculinity to physical competence was much greater for females than for males, and (c) the contribution of masculinity to general self-esteem was much greater for females than for males. In summary, for males, gender may override the impact of sex role orientation, while among females the impact of sex role orientation may be accentuated.     

Competitiveness among Japanese, Chinese, and American undergraduate students

Although research indicates that competitiveness, defined as the desire to win in interpersonal situations, is an important individual difference that influences a range of social interactions, little research has focused on competitiveness in cultures outside the United States. This study investigated competitiveness in three cultures by comparing Chinese (n=61), Japanese (n=232), and American (n=161) undergraduate college students. Nationality and sex were compared on two scales of the revised Competitiveness Index. Analysis indicated that American students scored higher on Enjoyment of Competitiveness than Chinese and Japanese students, but no difference was found on Contentiousness. Men scored higher than women on Enjoyment of Competition but not on Contentiousness. The findings indicate that sex and cultural patterns influence some but not all aspects of competitiveness.     

Competitiveness among females and males in physical activity classes

Competitive orientations of 237 male and female undergraduates enrolled in competitive and noncompetitive physical activity classes were investigated using the Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire [WOFO: R. L. Helmreich and J. T. Spence, The Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire: An Objective Instrument to Assess Components of Achievement Motivation and Attitudes Toward Family and Career, Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1978, 8(2) (Document #1677)] and a Competitiveness Inventory. Factor analysis confirmed the four WOFO dimensions proposed by Helmreich and Spence (mastery, work, competitiveness, personal unconcern). Factor analysis of the Competitiveness Inventory revealed three factors termed competitiveness, goal orientation, and win orientation. Sex × Activity Class (competitive or noncompetitive) (2 × 2) multivariate analyses revealed sex differences on the WOFO scores, both sex and activity differences on the Competitiveness Inventory scores, and no interactions. Sex differences on the WOFO scores confirmed Spence and Helmreich's findings; females scored higher on work and males scored higher on competitiveness. On the Competitiveness Inventory, males scored slightly higher than females on competitiveness, but most of the multivariate sex difference was due to males scoring higher on win orientation and females scoring higher on goal orientation. In contrast, the multivariate activity difference was due primarily to competitiveness; students in competitive activities scored considerably higher on competitiveness than students in noncompetitive activities. The findings suggest that sport-achievement orientation has a unique factor structure and provide evidence supporting the validity of the sport-specific, multidimensional Competitiveness Inventory.The assistance of Thomas Deeter and Carol Gruber with data collection and analysis is gratefully acknowledged.     

Androgyny and creativity: a study of the relationship between a balanced sex-role and creative functioning

The relationship between creativity and androgyny was studied in 163 women and men with the Creative Functioning Test (CFT) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). A 2 (femininity: high/low) x 2 (masculinity: high/low) x 2 (sex) ANOVA was conducted on subjects' CFT scores. A significant interaction effect between femininity and masculinity was found showing that subjects high on both femininity and masculinity (androgynous) and low on both scales (undifferentiated) reached higher CFT scores than female-typed and male-typed subjects. Further, a significant three-way interaction including sex of subject indicated that the former two-way interaction was accounted for by men only.     

The role of facial attractiveness and facial masculinity/femininity in sex classification of faces

We tested whether adults (experiment 1) and 4 - 5-year-old children (experiment 2) identify the sex of highly attractive faces faster and more accurately than not very attractive faces in a reaction-time task. We also assessed whether facial masculinity/femininity facilitated identification of sex. Results showed that attractiveness facilitated adults' sex classification of both female and male faces and children's sex classification of female, but not male, faces. Moreover, attractiveness affected the speed and accuracy of sex classification independently of masculinity/femininity. High masculinity in male faces, but not high femininity in female faces, also facilitated sex classification for both adults and children. These findings provide important new data on how the facial cues of attractiveness and masculinity/femininity contribute to the task of sex classification and provide evidence for developmental differences in how adults and children use these cues. Additionally, these findings provide support for Langlois and Roggman's (1990 Psychological Science 1 115 121) averageness theory of attractiveness.     

Masculinity,femininity, and self-esteem: A multitrait-multimethod analysis

A multitrait-multimethod matrix analysis was conducted to determine (1) the degree to which self-report trait and behavior measures of sex role orientation converge, (2) the degree to which measures of masculinity and self-esteem can be discriminated, and (3) the relative degree of relationship of trait and behavior measures of sex role orientation to self-esteem. The results indicated that trait and behavior measures of masculinity and femininity showed little convergence, that trait masculinity did not meet the criteria for discrimination from self-esteem, and that trait masculinity was more strongly correlated with self-esteem than was behavior masculinity. These results were stronger for women than for men.I would like to express my appreciation to John Millar and Shauna Gatten for their assistance in data collection and coding, and to Paul Biner and an anonymous reviewer for their comments on earlier drafts of this article.     

Relational Self-Construal and its Relationship to Academic Citizenship Behavior

Despite the abundance of research on personality traits and citizenship behavior, no study has examined the role of relational self-construal, which is a self-definition based on one’s close relationships. We hypothesized that relational self-construal would be positively related to academic citizenship behaviors, and that this association would remain significant while controlling for sex and agreeableness. In the study, 2,222 college undergraduates completed a self-report questionnaire measuring their relational self-construal, sex, personality, and academic citizenship attitudes. The results also confirmed the hypothesis that relational self-construal is positively related to some academic citizenship behaviors while controlling for sex and agreeableness. Specifically, relational self-construal was associated with consideration and civic virtue, but not with other citizenship behaviors.     

The second androgyny: A proposed revision in adaptive priorities for college women

Evidence has accumulated suggesting that androgyny, as popularly conceived (i.e., balanced and flexible display of masculine and feminine behaviors across situations), has more adaptive value for women than for men and even that it holds less value than believed for women. Four sex types were compared in a series of studies bearing upon psychological adjustment in college women: (1) balanced androgyny, (2) blended androgyny that integrates masculinity and femininity, (3) femininity, and (4) masculinity. In three out of four studies that considered daily stress symptoms, Type A characteristics, and menstrual distress, balanced androgynes demonstrated the poorest psychological adaptation and blended androgynes the best. The fourth study considered the psychological characteristics associated with eating disorders and found feminine women to be the most maladapted. Interpretation of the trend of results in terms of identity problems for the balanced androgynous woman was offered.     

Fathering and children's sex role orientation in Korea

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine variation in aspects of contemporary Korean fathering, such as warmth and involvement (frequency and task share), and its relationship to children's sex role development. One hundred and twenty-nine Korean families (fathers, mothers, and their 11- to 13-year-old children) completed standardized questionnaires addressing child-rearing practices, parental involvement, spousal support, and sex role orientations. Statistical analyses of the data revealed that warmth of fathering and father involvement (frequency and task share) were not significantly associated with children's sex role orientations. However, girls' femininity was significantly related to fathers' masculinity.