元明之际畏兀儿宗教嬗变述论

元明之际,畏兀儿人经历了一个漫长而复杂的宗教嬗变,由原来尊奉佛教、兼容各教过渡到独尊伊斯兰教,在此前后大致经历了约600余年的时间,最终完成了伊斯兰化。在伊斯兰教东传的过程中,察合台诸汗的宗教政策发挥着关键性的作用。伊斯兰教势力凭借着蒙古统治者的政治权势,以武力征服、经济优惠等手段,陆续征服了库车、吐鲁番、哈密等地佛教势力,最终实现了西域地区的伊斯兰化与突厥化。本文考察了察合台诸汗的宗教政策,论述了伊斯兰教在西域的扩张、畏兀儿佛教衰败的进程及其历史影响。     

忽必烈藩府文人与元代宗教政策及对文学的影响

忽必烈藩府文人集团是一个多种信仰并存的群体,他们通过各种形式对忽必烈等蒙古贵族产生影响。忽必烈对各种宗教都采取保护和利用的态度,以及元朝通过宗教对各种文化的接受,决定了元代宗教政策的宽容和含弘性。在元代,文学与宗教之关系既密切又具有鲜明的时代特色。元代文人对宗教观念的接受和认同达到了前所未有的程度,也影响了他们的文学创作,如全真道和佛教禅宗对杂剧创作的影响,全真道对散曲的影响,禅学、道家哲学及道教对元代诗文的影响等。     

论大数据对我国宗教的影响及应对策略

大数据对于正确制定未来决策和保障决策成功实施具有重大意义。目前,大数据已引起有关国家、组织和研究机构的高度关注,而在我国宗教研究领域,这一新生事物有待深入研究。而本文主要基于对大数据的定义、特点和实质的归纳、分析,讨论大数据对宗教的发展和传播、宗教政策的制定和实施、宗教管理、宗教理论研究所可能产生的影响及其应对策略。     

宗教政策与宗教工作的回顾与展望

文章从改革开放以来宗教政策与宗教工作经历的几个发展阶段 ,中央第三代领导集体对宗教政策和宗教工作实践的创新和发展两个方面 ,对二十多年来宗教政策和宗教工作作了回顾和总结。在此基础上 ,又对世纪初宗教工作作了思考与展望     

论西域文化对魏晋南北朝道教的影响

本文认为,由于佛教的传入主要是通过西域各国作为中介,因此,西域各国的传统文化在很大程度上融合于佛教当中,对中国的本土宗教发生重要的影响。有证据表明魏晋南北朝时期不少西域胡人直接参与了当时的道教组织,这一方面表明西域文化对道教产生影响的途径比我们想象的更为直接,另一方面表明宗教文化的影响总是双向的。本文试图从方术、神话、服饰、音乐诸方面分析道教所受到的西域文化的各种影响。     

前伊斯兰时期多元宗教影响下的中亚城市文明探析

前伊斯兰时期的中亚经历了诸多大国的统治,期间各国宗教传播至中亚城市并对中亚城市的物质文明和精神文明产生了广泛影响。塞琉古王朝统治时期,古希腊宗教的传播展现在奥克苏斯神庙及艾哈农城遗址的宗教建筑中。贵霜王朝统治时期,佛教在中亚的传播主要体现为铁尔梅兹古城的佛教建筑与塔克西拉古城内的犍陀罗艺术。萨珊王朝统治时期,琐罗亚斯德教的天葬葬俗传播至中亚城市并通过花拉子模与索格底亚那的纳骨瓮得到进一步发展;琐罗亚斯德教的娜娜女神传播至花拉子模并与地方元素融合;片治肯特古城谷仓壁画与撒马尔罕大使厅壁画的内容在展现多元文化的同时,依然以琐罗亚斯德教文化为主体内容。中亚城市文明具有鲜明的多元宗教文化特色。     

从文化传统看中国宗教的人文化倾向

不同的文化背景之下,其宗教形态具有不同的特点,中国的各种宗教之所以不同于西方宗教,究其原因就在于各种宗教形态在中国的传播与发展过程中,受到中国文化精神的洗礼。本文试图从思维方式、思想内容、社会功能和历史传统四个方面来分析中国文化对于宗教的巨大影响,为深入揭示中国宗教的基本倾向和独特品格提供一种宏观的文化背景,并认为中国宗教的一些特点都可从中国文化传统上来加以说明。     

新时期宗教略谈

最近,李鹏同志在全国宗教工作会议上强调指出,正确对待和处理宗教问题,是我国社会主义建设事业中的一个重要课题,也是建设有中国特色的社会主义的一个重要内容。因此,探讨研究新时期宗教问题,认真贯彻执行党的宗教政策,不但能团结千百万信教群众进行社会主义现代化建设,增进与世界各国人民的友好往来和文化交流,而且也是我们党的理论宣传工作的一项重要任务。一、宗教现状我国是一个多民族、多宗教的国家,就宗教而言,各个宗教在其历史上的传播与发展,对我国的民族史、民俗史、文化史、哲学史,都产生过广泛的影响。     

天津宗教的历史与现状

天津是中国历史上多种宗教盛行的地区之一,特别是明朝初年筑城设卫以后,各种宗教都获得了很大发展;天津又是我国改革开放以后,认真落实党的宗教政策较好的省市之一,特别是在积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应方面做出了成绩。本文在调查与研究的基础上,以历史与现实相结合的方法,首次将天津历史上与现实中的各种宗教活动和社会功能向世人介绍。     

明与西域通贡往来的特点及其成因

明朝与西域通贡往来的特点,对明朝而言,一是明对西域外交政策采取的是远交近抚,结以厚利;二是明以哈密领西域朝贡,以关西七卫作西陲屏蔽,退守甘肃,是维护贡路而不是震慑西域;三是明与西域往来受瓦剌扩张影响。对西域而言,主要为事大主义性质和西域贸易使臣的家族性。西域人来华,政治上是由于明朝皇帝和西域国王巩固统治的需要,经济上谋取高额利益应是其根本动力,中国文化的吸引力在某种程度上也是重要原因。     

元代宗教政策的民族性

元王朝为了怀柔抚纳众多的被统治民族,采用了普遍的宗教信仰自由政策,并且通过优待全真道、汉地佛教、藏传佛教、伊斯兰教领袖的方法,把他们所代表的人民笼络在政府的周围,加强了中华民族的多元统一。同时,元政府又通过崇佛压道、崇藏传佛教压汉地佛教,崇“教”压“禅”,严厉打击民间宗教等方法,贯彻等级民族政策,巩固蒙古贵族的统治特权。元代的民族宗教政策,既包含了宗教信仰方面的宽容开明,又暴露了剥削阶级民族观的狭隘局限。     

The changing geography of Christianity in China, 1918-2004

Using systematic provincial level data on the number of Protestant Christians in 1918, 1949, 1997 and 2004, and those on Christian religious venues in 1979, 1997 and 2004, this article analyses changes in the coastal dominance, urban primacy and spatial diffusion of Christian communities in China. Six decades of communist rule eroded the missionary legacy, as Christian communities spread to China’s interior provinces and the rural hinterland, and became more widespread in China by 2004, with the sharpest decline in metropolitan cities and in the Guangdong province, and the fastest growth in the interior and northeast provinces. Ethnographies and case studies suggest that these developments may have resulted from the diminution of the missionary legacy, the relative decline of the institutional churches versus indigenous congregations, the replacement of an anti-state old guard by more pragmatic and compliant church leaders, the rise of the charismatic Pentecostal movement and the evangelism of a new breed of Christian entrepreneurs. These religious sociological factors may have also interacted with urbanisation and national and local religious policy to produce permutations in the distribution of Christian communities which can only be thoroughly analysed through systematic data-based research.     

Caesarean Delivery: the Regulations on Religious Affairs in China,March 2005

Abstract

Taking effect in March 2005, the Regulations on Religious Affairs is an overdue delivery of a more benign policy towards religion in China. Comprehensive in scope, it was promulgated only after numerous drafts and six years of extensive consultation with the religious, academic, legal and human rights communities, followed by a nationwide effort to propagate the new policy at the national and local levels. The Regulations prescribes a new framework for state–religion relations, where the power of the state is limited by reducing government approval and certification requirements for religious communities. Religious organisations are granted increasing autonomy from state ideology, in managing their internal affairs, in owning and using religious property, and in accepting donations from within and outside China. The previous system of administering religious affairs through departmental micro-management and discretionary approval has been partly replaced by rule of law that sets limits on bureaucratic response time to applications from the religious communities, which are now empowered to lodge administrative appeals, challenge administrative decisions in courts, and sue for compensatory damages from illegal or negligent government action. While the state still manages and intervenes in religious affairs, the enactment of such legislation is a benign and overdue change in religious policy in the reform period in China.     

Religious Claims in Public: Lutheran Resources

Abstract : A cacophony of religious voices seeking to influence public culture, opinion, and policy pervades the public discourse in the United States today. Some publicly‐oriented religious claims are appropriate while others are not. Sorely needed are criteria for making that distinction. This essay asks: What are criteria for appropriate and valid use of religious claims, language, and symbols in deliberation about public policy? What particular gifts do Lutheran traditions bring to shaping those criteria? The essay then draws upon Lutheran theological resources to propose theologically grounded criteria for appropriate and valid use of religious language, claims, and symbols in public discourse.     

The Enduring Influence of Religion on Senators’ Legislative Behavior

Does a senator's personal religion influence their legislative behavior in the Senate? To date, empirical research has answered this question only using senators’ religious traditions, while more concurrent work implies that religion should be measured as a multifaceted phenomenon. This study tests this proposition by compiling a unique data set of senators’ religion, conceptualized and measured by three different elements—belonging, beliefs, and behavior. The study estimates the association between these three religious facets and senators’ legislative behavior on economic, social, and foreign policy issues, while controlling for their constituencies’ political and religious preferences. It finds that religious beliefs are a strong predictor of senators’ legislative behavior, while religious tradition and behavior are mostly not. Furthermore, it finds that religious beliefs are associated with legislative behavior across a wide array of policy areas and are not confined to sociocultural issues.     

HIDDEN VARIABLES AND THE IMPLICATE ORDER

Abstract. This paper explains how my ideas of hidden variables tie up to those in the implicate order, and how all these notions are related to my views on religion. Beginning with my work on the quantum theory, it traces how I was led to question the usual interpretation, and goes on to show how both the notion of hidden variables and that of the implicate order were implicit in my thought more than thirty years ago. The further development through quantum field theory brings all the various threads together. Finally, the general world view that comes out of this development is seen to be compatible with a religious approach to life.     

Religious education and spiritual development as a cultural component of the lifelong learning policy in Romania. The example of orthodox Christianity

In a context of growing globalisation and European integration, Christian religious education seems to be more and more neglected within the social debate. Given the differences between European countries, the question may arise: What is the relevant situation in Romania? The article analyses the religious education and spiritual development as a cultural component of lifelong learning policy in Romania, based on more than 20 semi-structured interviews conducted with Romanian professionals, research workers, teachers and experts in education. In order to describe the role played by religious education in Romania three main aspects may be quoted: (1) Spiritual development completes the economic and social development of people; (2) The national culture and values contribute to the promotion of life models in accordance with Christian orthodox religion; and (3) The integral development of the person is part of the lifelong learning policy in Romania and includes orthodox spirituality. These aspects are analysed on the basis of the answers given by national experts in lifelong learning and religious education.     

Bridging science and religion in China: Emerging opportunities for global dialogue 1

The development of the science and religion dialogue in the past two decades has been phenomenal. Until now, the dialogue between science and religion has mainly been a dialogue within the Abrahamic faith traditions, but in the spirit of true dialogue, it should also extend to worldviews from other cultures. Scientism has one of its strongest footholds in China and has dominated Chinese intellectual culture for nearly a century. In fact, science and technology still rule supreme today. An atheistic communist rule, together with a humanistic Confucianist tradition that leaves little room for religious values, has suppressed religion in China for a long while. The introduction of science and religion dialogue will inevitably help Chinese scholars reflect upon the development of science and technology in China, and in the process, rediscover China's religious heritage and gain new grounds in its scientific and religious life. A meaningful science and religion dialogue is necessary for a pluralistic, postmodern world—and for China.     

Shi‘i Islamic cosmopolitanism and the transformation of religious authority in Senegal

Senegalese “conversion” to Shi‘i Islam resulted from cosmopolitan interactions with West Africa’s resident Lebanese population and Iranian revolutionary ideologies. Shi‘i advocates spread their religious convictions through teaching, conferences, holiday celebrations, and media publicity. Key to their success are libraries full of Arabic and French texts from Iran and Lebanon. Inherent in Islamic education is the authority bestowed on those who are knowledgeable, and with the spread of religious knowledge through books, media, and the Internet comes a broadening of the scope of religious authority and resulting conflict with or accommodation of old political communities. Senegalese converts to Shi‘i Islam use their literacy in Arabic and individually acquired libraries of Islamic legal books to bypass the authority of Sufi marabouts. Some keep their feet in both Sunni and Shi‘i worlds, and their ability to compare religious texts of both traditions wins them disciples. Shi‘i minorities claim autochthony and authenticity in Senegal through narrating revisionist historical accounts of the spread of (Shi‘i) Islam to Africa. Conferences commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Husayn during the Shi‘i mourning period in the month of Muharram target Sufi Muslims who also love the family of the Prophet. Shi‘i leaders skillfully detach this foreign religious ideology from Middle Eastern politics and make this branch of Islam relevant to Senegalese through establishing religious centers as NGOs, which work to bring health care and economic development to neighborhoods in the name of Shi‘i Islam.     

Religious news and controversies in Central Asia: a case study of a Western ‘Christian Initiative’ news service

Abstract

Religion, politics and public policy are tightly interwoven in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia, where regimes tightly control religion and domestic and foreign media. This case study examines how one Christian-oriented western news organisation, Forum 18, covers religion-related news. It finds that religious-affiliated news sources are cited more frequently and more prominently than official sources, that Forum 18 stories cover Christian more often than non-Christian religious groups, and that discrete events are covered more often than broad policy or issues.