An evaluation of intraverbal training to generate socially appropriate responses to novel questions

Four preschool children (with and without disabilities), who often responded inappropriately to questions, participated in the current study. Pretest results were used to create sets of questions that the children either did or did not answer correctly (i.e., known and unknown questions). We then sequentially taught two different responses to a subset of unknown questions: (a) "I don't know" (IDK), and (b) "I don't know, please tell me" (IDKPTM). Results showed that following acquisition with the target set, both responses generalized across questions and teachers for all participants. Following IDK training, some undesirable generalization of IDK to known questions occurred for 3 participants. Training of IDKPTM with the addition of a restricted reinforcement contingency was sufficient to establish correct answers to a portion of previously unknown questions. The importance of teaching generalized responses that enable the acquisition of novel intraverbals is discussed.     

Accounting for consistency and change in responses to influence attempts: An examination of preference for consistency

The long-standing question of individual differences’ impact in influence research was addressed by examining the possibility that an individual’s level of Preference for Consistency (PFC) may account for some of the variability. Consistent with predictions, high and low PFC individuals did not differ in susceptibility to influence attempts when they did not hold an initial position on an issue. However, when an initial position was stated, high PFC individuals altered their position (from initial to final) significantly more than low PFC individuals, indicating that PFC may moderate the effects of influence. Discussion focuses on the salience of commitments made by participants as explanations for the pattern of results, and the implications of PFC for psychological research.     

Accounting for consistency and change in responses to influence attempts: An examination of preference for consistency

The long-standing question of individual differences’ impact in influence research was addressed by examining the possibility that an individual’s level of Preference for Consistency (PFC) may account for some of the variability. Consistent with predictions, high and low PFC individuals did not differ in susceptibility to influence attempts when they did not hold an initial position on an issue. However, when an initial position was stated, high PFC individuals altered their position (from initial to final) significantly more than low PFC individuals, indicating that PFC may moderate the effects of influence. Discussion focuses on the salience of commitments made by participants as explanations for the pattern of results, and the implications of PFC for psychological research.     

Skew and internal consistency

The effects of skew on the standardized item alpha were examined with Monte Carlo techniques. Alphas computed from normal variables were compared with alphas from lognormal variables, ranks, and skewed versus normal Likert-type variables. The extent and direction of skew were varied, as was the size of the population interitem correlation (rho), the number of items, and the number of categories for Likert-type variables. Because the average interitem correlation affects alpha and skew affects the average interitem correlation, the effect of skew on the average interitem correlation also was examined. Results indicated that skew decreased the average interitem correlation and produced small decreases in alpha that were largest when skew was large, rho was small, items were skewed in opposite directions, and there were fewer items.     

Starting at the beginning: an introduction to coefficient alpha and internal consistency

Cronbach's a is the most widely used index of the reliability of a scale. However, its use and interpretation can be subject to a number of errors. This article discusses the historical development of a from other indexes of internal consistency (split-half reliability and Kuder-Richardson 20) and discusses four myths associated with a: (a) that it is a fixed property of the scale, (b) that it measures only the internal consistency of the scale, (c) that higher values are always preferred over lower ones, and (d) that it is restricted to the range of 0 to 1. It provides some recommendations for acceptable values of a in different situations.     

Self-compassion and women athletes' responses to emotionally difficult sport situations: An evaluation of a brief induction

ObjectivesTo examine self-compassion as a way to promote healthy responses in women athletes when faced with emotionally difficult sport-specific situations.DesignPhase I, cross-sectional; Phase II, experimental.MethodsIn Phase I, participants (N = 101; M_age = 20.0, SD = 2.8 years) completed measures of self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism, as well as reactions, thoughts, and emotions in response to hypothetical (i.e., responsible for a team loss) and recalled scenarios. Participants returning for Phase II were randomly assigned to a brief self-compassion induction (n = 21), self-esteem induction (n = 20), or writing control (n = 18) group. Following the induction, they responded to the same hypothetical scenario as in Phase I.Phase I resultsAfter partialling out self-esteem and narcissism, self-compassion was related (p < .01) to negative affect (r = −.40), catastrophizing thoughts (r = −.30), personalizing thoughts (r = −.32), and behavioral equanimity (r = .28) for the hypothetical scenario. A similar pattern was found for the recalled scenario.Phase II resultsA MANOVA with Phase I self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism as covariates resulted in a non-significant group by time interaction, Wilks' Lambda = .75, F(12,96) = 1.27, p = .25. Follow-up hierarchical regression analysis showed Phase I levels of self-compassion as the only significant predictor for negative affect, personalizing thoughts, and behavioral equanimity.ConclusionsWomen athletes with higher self-compassion levels generally responded in healthier ways to emotionally difficult hypothetical and recalled situations in sport than their less self-compassionate counterparts. However, future research needs continued focus on evaluating self-compassion inductions and interventions for use in sport.     

'Questions, questions, questions!' A comparison of therapist inferences and parental responses to systemic questions

Using a specially designed questionnaire, we examined the relationship between parental responses to systemic questions, therapists'views based upon these responses and parental reports of dysfunction in a member of the family. The questionnaire was completed by parents of a randomly selected population sample of adolescents and by experienced family therapists. Therapists made inferences that were predictable, coherent and reliable. They gave most salience to the concept of'enmeshment'and least to'hostile-discordant'functioning. Some enmeshed answers were favoured by substantial proportions of parents, suggesting that they may reflect normal variants of family functioning. However no associations between total enmeshment scores and reported mental health problems were found. Hostile-discordant functioning, as assessed in this study, was rare in the general population sample, but was associated with reported problems.     

Student responses to a reflexive course evaluation

Simple surveys are the predominant tool for course evaluations in most universities, but their validity has been questioned. They have been criticized for being a ritual way of complying with administrative regulations rather than a way of improving educational quality. Moreover, there is often a focus on student satisfaction, where the complexity of learning processes and the development of learner identities are lost. As an alternative approach, a qualitative course evaluation was tested that consisted of a single question: What could have been done in this course in order to better support your learning? Twenty-one second-year psychology students completed the evaluation at the end of a course. They provided rich answers describing learning activities and communication, and they described both teachers and students as agents. Going beyond merely reporting possible improvements, the students saw their learning processes in a context of academic demands and social mechanisms. It is argued that qualitative course evaluations can provide information about students’ understanding of their own learning that is difficult to uncover in a traditional survey. It is concluded that qualitative course evaluations would support the development of a student learner identity and help create a role for students as co-producers of knowledge.     

Using a sharp instrument to parse apart strategy and consistency: an evaluation of PPT and its assumptions

Potential Performance Theory (PPT) is a general theory for parsing observed performance into the underlying strategy and the consistency with which it is used. Although empirical research has supported that PPT is useful, it is desirable to have more information about the bias and standard errors of PPT findings. It also is beneficial to know the effects of violations of PPT assumptions. The authors present computer simulations that evaluate bias and standard errors at varying levels of strategy, consistency, and number of trials per participant. The simulations show that, when the assumptions are true, there is very little bias and the standard errors are low when there are moderate or large numbers of trials per participant (e.g., N=50 or N=100). But when the independence assumption is violated, PPT provides biased findings, although the bias is quite small unless the violations are large.     

From alpha to omega: A practical solution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation

Coefficient alpha is the most popular measure of reliability (and certainly of internal consistency reliability) reported in psychological research. This is noteworthy given the numerous deficiencies of coefficient alpha documented in the psychometric literature. This mismatch between theory and practice appears to arise partly because users of psychological scales are unfamiliar with the psychometric literature on coefficient alpha and partly because alternatives to alpha are not widely known. We present a brief review of the psychometric literature on coefficient alpha, followed by a practical alternative in the form of coefficient omega. To facilitate the shift from alpha to omega, we also present a brief guide to the calculation of point and interval estimates of omega using a free, open source software environment.     

Coefficient alpha and related internal consistency reliability coefficients

The author studied the conditions under which coefficient alpha and 10 related internal consistency reliability coefficients underestimate the reliability of a measure. Simulated data showed that alpha, though reasonably robust when computed on n components in moderately heterogeneous data, can under certain conditions seriously underestimate the reliability of a measure. Consequently, alpha, when used in corrections for attenuation, can result in nontrivial overestimation of the corrected correlation. Most of the coefficients studied, including lambda 2, did not improve the estimate to any great extent when the data were heterogeneous. The exceptions were stratified alpha and maximal reliability, which performed well when the components were grouped into two subsets, each measuring a different factor, and maximized lambda 4, which provided the most consistently accurate estimate of the reliability in all simulations studied.     

Basic Personality Inventory clinical and validity scales: Stability and internal consistency

A sample of 71 incarcerated adult male inmates was used to investigate the stability and internal consistency for the clinical and validity scales of the Basic Personality Inventoiy. One month test-retest stability coefficients for the clinical scales ranged from .53 to .77. KR-20 reliabilities ranged from .61 to .86 on each occasion. With the exception of the longer perseveration scales, stability was also reasonable for the validity scales. Overall, the Basic Personality Inventory clinical and validity scales demonstrated favorable stability and reliability in an inmate population.This research was supported by a STEP grant from the Alberta Government. Portions of this paper were presented at the Psychologists Association of Alberta's annual meeting, April 8, 1989, Calgary, Alberta. We gratefully acknowledge M. R. Sass and M. Wcinrath for their support.     

An internal consistency check for scale values determined by the method of successive intervals

The method of successive intervals is a psychological scaling procedure in which stimuli are classified into successive intervals according to the degree of some defined attribute which they are judged to possess. A psychological continuum is defined and the scale values are then taken as the medians of the distributions of judgments on the psychological continuum. It is assumed that the distributions of judgments for each stimulus are normal on the psychological continuum as defined.An internal consistency check indicates that the cumulative distributions of empirical judgments for the various stimuli can be reproduced by means of a limited number of parameters with an average error that compares favorably with that usually reported for paired comparison data. Furthermore, the scale values obtained by successive interval scaling, for the data reported, are shown to be linearly related to those obtained by the method of paired comparisons.This paper was written while the first author was a post-doctoral Research Training Fellow of the Social Science Research Council studying at the University of Chicago. It reports research undertaken in cooperation with the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute for the Armed Forces. The views or conclusions contained in this report are those of the authors. They are not to be construed as necessarily reflecting the views or endorsement of the Department of Defense.     

The greatest lower bound to the reliability of a test and the hypothesis of unidimensionality

To assess the reliability of congeneric tests, specifically designed reliability measures have been proposed. This paper emphasizes that such measures rely on a unidimensionality hypothesis, which can neither be confirmed nor rejected when there are only three test parts, and will invariably be rejected when there are more than three test parts. Jackson and Agunwamba's (1977) greatest lower bound to reliability is proposed instead. Although this bound has a reputation for overestimating the population value when the sample size is small, this is no reason to prefer the unidimensionality-based reliability. Firstly, the sampling bias problem of the glb does not play a role when the number of test parts is small, as is often the case with congeneric measures. Secondly, glb and unidimensionality based reliability are often equal when there are three test parts, and when there are more test parts, their numerical values are still very similar. To the extent that the bias problem of the greatest lower bound does play a role, unidimensionality-based reliability is equally affected. Although unidimensionality and reliability are often thought of as unrelated, this paper shows that, from at least two perspectives, they act as antagonistic concepts. A measure, based on the same framework that led to the greatest lower bound, is discussed for assessing how close is a set of variables to unidimensionality. It is the percentage of common variance that can be explained by a single factor. An empirical example is given to demonstrate the main points of the paper. The authors are obliged to Henk Kiers for commenting on a previous version. Gregor Sočan is now at the University of Ljubljana.