Effects of a coactor's prediction on latencies to predict and indentify stimuli

On each of 300 trials E's confederate (C) verbalized which of two stimuli would occur; then S made a prediction. Following each presentation, S and C pulled a trigger to identify the stimulus. Two latencies were measured: the interval between C's and S's prediction (prediction time), and the interval between stimulus presentation and S's identification response (choice RT). Prediction times were significantly shorter when S's prediction agreed rather than disagreed with C's prediction, when S's preceding prediction was correct rather than incorrect, and when S was female rather than male. Choice RT was influenced by distributions of C's stimulus predictions and C's prediction outcomes in directions supporting an expectancy model.     

Prediction outcome and choice reaction time: Inhibition versus facilitation effects

In two-choice RT tasks Ss verbally predicted all stimulus presentations, two-thirds of the presentations, or none of the presentations. Effects of stimulus probability were similar for each type of prediction trial: Correct Prediction Outcome (PO), Incorrect PO, and No-Prediction (NP). When comparisons between Prediction and NP trials were between Ss, reactions on NP trials were significantly faster than reactions POs, but were not slower than reactions to Correct POs. However, when Prediction and NP trials occurred within Ss, reactions on NP trials were not faster than reactions to Incorrect POs, but were significantly slower than reactions to Correct POs. Speculations about Ss' implicit stimulus predictions are offered to interpret differential implications of inhibition and facilitation.     

The role of imagery in the evaluation of sentences

Reaction time was the dependent variable in this sentence verification experiment. Simple sentences, which were either true or false, were constructed such that in some cases it was easy to form an image of the sentence, and in other cases forming an image was difficult. Ss' ratings were employed to select low- and high-imagery sentences. It was found that high-imagery sentences could be verified more rapidly than low-imagery sentences. Instructions which did not mention imagery were given to some Ss while others were specifically asked to employ imagery, but the reaction times of these two groups of Ss did not differ. It was concluded that imagery facilitates the process of sentence verification and that models of this process which restrict themselves to purely semantic operations are incomplete.     

Effects of vicarious consequences on imitation and recall: Some developmental findings

Two experiments were conducted using a multiple-item list in which each item consisted of a pair of pictures. The model indicated which member of each pair she preferred and was either positively reinforced, negatively reinforced, or received neutral consequences. The S then indicated his preferences (imitation test). Following the imitation test, each S was asked to recall the model's choices. Age was an independent variable in both experiments. Imitation scores of the children, preschool to sixth-grade age range, were strongly influenced by differential vicarious reinforcement. Vicarious reward increased imitation and vicarious punishment decreased it. College students' imitation scores were only minimally influenced by differential vicarious reinforcement. Within- and between-subjects variations of vicarious reinforcement had similar effects. Recall scores were surprisingly high and were not significantly influenced by differential vicarious reinforcement. Interestingly, age and percentage of correct recall were negatively correlated.     

Trait anxiety,stress, and learning a test of Saltz's hypothesis

Behavioral predictions from Saltz's, Spence's, and Spielberger's interpretations of trait anxiety were tested in a complex verbal learning task. Fifty-three high-anxious and 52 low-anxious male college students were randomly distributed to test conditions of failure-stress, pain-stress, or neutral instructions. The learning data revealed that high-anxious-failure and low-anxious-pain Ss were disrupted and supported Saltz's hypothesis; self-reported anxiety (A-State scale, STAI) was observed only in high-anxious-failure Ss and supported Spielberger's theory of the arousal of state anxiety as a function of trait anxiety. However, the contradiction between self-reported anxiety and learning behavior in low-anxious-pain Ss indicated that the verbal report of these Ss was an inaccurate or insensitive index of arousal.     

Effects of repeated exposure to sexually violent or nonviolent stimuli on sexual arousal to rape and nonrape depictions

The major purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of repeated exposure to sexually violent stimuli (SVS) in relatively ‘naturalistic settings’ on sexual arousal to rape and nonrape stimuli. Repeated exposure effects using nonviolent erotica were also examined. Sixty-nine male Ss participated in the study. A preexposure session was conducted in which Ss were exposed to written and pictorial depictions of rape and mutually-consenting intercourse. Based on Ss' penile tumescence to these depictions, they were classified as either Force-oriented, Nonforce-oriented or Unclassifiable. Subsequently, Ss were randomly assigned to sexually violent (SVS), sexually nonviolent (SNVS) or control conditions within each force-orientation group. Those assigned to the SVS condition were then exposed to 10 SVS including feature-length films and written and pictorial depictions over a period of 4 weeks. Ss in the SNVS condition were exposed to 10 similar media presentations depicting sexually nonviolent activities only. Ss in the control condition were not exposed to any stimuli during this 4-week period. Soon after completion of the exposure phase, Ss returned for a postexposure laboratory session in which they were presented with four depictions that were similar in theme to those in the preexposure session. Penile tumescence scores and self-reports of sexual arousal were obtained. Results revealed that, for Force-oriented Ss, those exposed to either SVS or SNVS were less aroused to the rape depictions in the postexposure session than those in the control condition. A similar pattern occurred with the nonrape depictions for these Ss, though it was considerably less pronounced. No evidence of a similar ‘satiation’ pattern was obtained for either Nonforce-oriented or Unclassifiable Ss, with these Ss showing no significant differences among the three exposure conditions. The findings are discussed in the context of cognitions, personality differences, conditioning processes, stimulus parameters and response habituation theories. Social and clinical implications are also discussed.     

S-multiplicativity of a stochastic matrix and applications to visual identification

A stochastic matrix is called S-multiplicative if the conditional probabilities in a specific subset S of its cells can be factorized into the product of two functions depending on the rows and columns, respectively. The concept of S-multiplicativity is related to Goodman's concept of quasi-independence and generalizes Falmagne's concept of a multiplicative confusion matrix, where S consists of the cells lying outside the main diagonal ($\text{D}$-multiplicativity). In the present study, the notion of S-multiplicativity is applied to the analysis of visual identification performance. The confusion matrices obtained from three identification experiments are tested for predictions of S-multiplicativity derived from the multicomponent theory of perception. If the stimuli do not overlap, i.e., different stimuli have no features in common, then the theory predicts a $\text{D}$-multiplicative confusion matrix. Alternatively, in the case of overlapping stimuli the theory predicts S-multiplicativity with respect to a more severely restricted subset S. These predictions are confirmed by the data.     

Word production and comprehension in Alzheimer's diseáse: The breakdown of semantic knowledge

Relatively mildly impaired patients with suspected Alzheimer's disease (N = 14; Verbal IQ = 96) and normal controls of similar age and education (N = 11) were administered tests requiring production (naming and fluency) and comprehension of single words. Word comprehension was assessed on a superordinate level (rating words for degree of “pleasantness”) and on a more specific level (matching abstract pictorial representations with printed words denoting objects, actions, emotions, and modifiers). Performance on standardized measures of semantic knowledge (Vocabulary and Similarities subtests of the WAIS) was also evaluated. The naming and fluency abilities of the Alzheimer's patients were found to be highly correlated (r = .80) and impaired. Naming errors often consisted of semantic field errors which were either hierarchically or linearly related to the target name. In comparison with normals, verbal fluency was characterized by a tendency to generate proportionally more category names concurrent with reduced production of items within a category. Single-word comprehension was also impaired, except when judgments of affective meaning were required. It was argued that these results suggest that Alzheimer's disease may lead to a specific disruption in semantic knowledge characterized by a difficulty in differentiating between items within the same semantic category concurrent with the relative preservation of broader categorical information.     

Stability of individual differences in personality characteristics from 3 to 15 years

Ratings of 23 personality variables on a longitudinal sample of 97 children at the ages of 3, 7, 11 and 15 yr had previously been shown to yield orthogonal factors of high continuity of structure across ages. Subjects' scores on these factors were employed to derive stability coefficients over these ages. The general level of obtained r's is modest, but is higher for measures of Extraversion-Introversion (EI) and other broad factors (Neuroticism (N), Melancholic-Sanguine (MS), and Choleric-Phlegmatic (CP)) than for narrower Varimax factors (EI, Melancholic and Activity), except in the case of Choleric. Complete regression factor scores proved more satisfactory than an inexact method. Global ratings of EI and N yielded similar r's to the factor measures.The effects of correcting for rater unreliability and possible values of ‘protocol’ unreliability are examined. Even in the case of a maximal correction, stability tends to be lower than is found for IQ data, suggesting greater instability of the underlying personality variables.Lawley's test of heterogeneity of correlation matrices provides only limited evidence of a simplex pattern across ages, and virtually none of a ‘sleeper effect’. Jennrich's test of differences in matrices provides no evidence of sex differences in stability.Results on stability of the specific variables are also reported. They show, with few exceptions, lower stability than factor variables. Jennrich's test yielded significant sex differences on only three specific variables.     

Locus of control,perceived responsibility for prior fate,and helping behavior

One-hundred-and-sixty adolescents participated in two studies designed to investigate the relationship between $\text{I}\text{E}$ and helping behavior as mediated by the perceived cause of another's need. In the first study, Ss were given the opportunity to help, either “indirectly” or “directly,” a supervisor who had been over- or underpaid in a prior similar task. Internals helped more in the “direct” help than the “indirect” help conditions but their helping behavior and their perceptions of their supervisors were not consistent. The perceptions of the externals were relatively consistent with their greater help of the “overpaid” supervisor. In study 2, the Ss were given additional information to increase the possibility of their making causal attributions as a function of the supervisor's prior fate. Once again, the external subjects' helping behavior reflected their perception of their supervisor's merit. The internal subjects exhibited relatively little helping behavior regardless of their supervisors' prior fate or perceived competence.     

Developmental changes in apportionment of study time among items in a multitrial free recall task

First grade, third grade, and college Ss attempted to memorize a single set of items over the course of 5 trials, each trial consisting of a 45-sec study period followed by a free recall test. On all trials but the first, S was allowed to have available during his study period only half of the total set of items, but was free to select whichever items he wished to include in this half. Third grade and college Ss were significantly more prone than first grade Ss to select for study items not recalled in the immediately preceding recall test. The results suggest that the strategy of deliberately concentrating one's study activities on the less well mastered segments of materials to be learned, like other elementary memory strategies (e.g., rote rehearsal), cannot automatically be assumed to be part of a young child's repertoire of learning techniques.     

“Generalized imitation” on a nonimitative task: Effects of modeling and task history

Two experiments investigated characteristic generalized imitation procedures on a nonimitative successive visual discrimination task. In Experiment I, no discriminative behavior was obtained though a number of procedures designed to enhance discrimination were employed. The introduction of a differential modeling procedure after nine or 10 sessions of nondifferential performance was ineffective in producing differential responding for three of four Ss. In the second experiment, the differential modeling procedure was introduced as an initial manipulation and was successful in establishing discriminative performance in all Ss. After several sessions of differential responding, the observation of a model performing nondifferentially was relatively ineffective in altering the pattern of responding. These results suggest (1) that modeling may be functional in altering a S's behavior depending on what point in the procedures the manipulation is introduced and (2) that certain procedural variables may define a functional response class characterized by the failure to develop discriminative responding.     

The effects of differential reinforcement on generalized imitation

The present study examines the transfer of imitative learning to other nonimitative performance conditions and compares imitative and nonimitative performance under contingencies of differential reinforcement for S⁰ behavior, differential reinforcement for nonimitative behavior, and extinction. Many authors have suggested that a child's continued imitative performance of rewarded S^D and unrewarded S^Δ behavior is a function of subtle social cues or experimental demand present in most generalized imitation procedures. The two experiments presented here support that conclusion but also provide evidence that conclusions drawn from such generalized imitation studies were generally accurate. Even though a child's trial-by-trial imitative performance appeared to be a function of procedural artifacts, the child's later performance in the role of a model indicated that a functionally interdependent generalized response class of imitative behavior had been learned while the child imitated. As such, these experiments generally supported Baer's secondary reinforcement hypothesis for imitative performance and suggest that future research employ nonimitative tasks such as reversed imitation as a measure of imitative learning.     

An empirical test of the astrological theory of personality

The present study investigated the accuracy of genethliacal horoscopes by asking each of the 15 Ss and a member of her family or a close friend—the nominee—to try to identify which one of 5 cast horoscopes pertained to the S, i.e. was based on her birth data. In addition, each S was rated on 5 personality dimensions by the astrologer who cast the horoscopes, the S herself and her nominee. Finally, the S completed the South African Personality Questionnaire which measured the dimensions psychometrically. Neither the Ss nor the nominees were able correctly to identify the S's horoscope. Regarding the 5 personality dimensions, it was found that the astrologer's ratings did not correlate with the psychometrically-obtained scores, the S's self-ratings or the ratings of the S by the nominee. There was, however, a reasonably high degree of consensus between the psychometrically-obtained scores, the self-ratings and the ratings of the nominees.     

Prognostic factors and classification issues in the treatment of secondary orgasmic dysfunction

The present study examined patient and problem characteristics as well as therapy process factors associated with success and failure in sex therapy for secondary orgasmic dysfunction. Ss were 23 married couples selected for emotional and marital stability; all wives were suffering from secondary orgasmic dysfunction. Sexual functioning and satisfaction were evaluated before and after 15 sessions of therapy. Ss also engaged in daily self-monitoring throughout the therapy program. Two criteria of therapeutic success were used: the couples' global sexual harmony and the females' frequency of orgasmic response in couple sexual activity. Higher pre-treatment masturbation rates by the female, as well as better awareness of her partner's sexual tastes and preferences, were related to poor therapeutic outcome. Greater pre-treatment enjoyment of non-genital caressing by the female as well as higher incidence of interpersonal orgasmic response in the past were associated with therapeutic success. The theoretical and research implications of the present findings are discussed.     

Predicting consensus about propositions concerning depression and antidepressive behaviour: Another cognitive dimension of commonsense knowledge

This study concerns people's ability to predict the degree of consensus which their peers would show in endorsing propositions about depression and antidepressive behaviour (ADB). Ss indicated personal preference for one member of each of 10 forced-choice pairs of statements and estimated the percentage of their present group that would endorse each statement. Actual and mean predicted percentages were compared and rank order correlations calculated. A high degree of agreement was found and this result was confirmed in a replication study. The finding suggests that people's cognitions about depression and ADB include a quantitative notion about the degree to which these sorts of propositions constitute matters of common sense.     

Effects of the temporal relationship of feedback and stimulus information upon discrimination-learning strategies

Second grade Ss and college students were tested under three conditions of the temporal relationship of feedback and stimulus information. In one condition (/+3) feedback was delivered immediately upon S's response while the stimuli were still in view. In another (/0) feedback was also immediate but stimuli were extinguished immediately upon S's response. In the third condition (/?3), stimuli were extinguished immediately upon response and feedback was delayed 3 sec. Major findings among the children were (a) Ss of all conditions coded information at the same (high) average efficiency, (b) Ss of conditions /0 and /?3 recoded with significantly less efficiency than those of /+3, and (c) Ss in condition /+3 manifested primarily efficient information-processing strategies, those in condition /0 showed intermediate performance, and those of condition /?3 showed relatively primitive stereotyped behavior. Among adult Ss performance was uniformly high with little effect on any response measure investigated.     

Informational and motivational components of social reinforcement

Thirty-six four-year-old children of each sex were tested in a two-choice marble dropping task. There were three Ss in each cell of a 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. The factors investigated were: reinforcement condition (Contingent, Yoked, Nonreinforcement), sex, base preference level (strong vs weak), Base Rate Level (high vs low). The dependent variables were: base preference ratio, base rate, preference ratio change, rate change. The contingently reinforced Ss had significantly higher preference change scores than Ss in the other two reinforcement conditions but only at the high base preference level. The Ss in both the contingent and yoked groups had higher rate change scores than Ss in the nonreinforcement group. The results were interpreted as indicating social reinforcement may have two effects, one a cue function and the other an effect on S's motivational system. The results indicate that regression effects do not operate in the two-choice task and that crossing baseline levels of performance is an effective way to control baseline differences in analyses of change in the two-choice task.