Assessing absentmindedness: Prospective memory complaint and impairment in middle-aged adults

In two experiments, metamemorial differences between prospective and retrospective memory performance were examined. Participants in Experiment 1 were recruited through newspaper advertisements and comprised middle-aged women who experienced exceptional problems in prospective remembering. Experiment 2 involved self-reporters and nonreporters of retrospective memory problems, who were selected from a large population-based sample of middle-aged adults. In both experiments, memory performance was assessed by using a variety of tasks, including five retrospective memory tasks and three prospective memory tasks that varied in level of realism and retrieval support. In both experiments, there were selective differences in memory performance, so that participants who experienced (retrospective or prospective) memory problems showed impaired performance in prospective, but not in retrospective, memory tasks. These findings suggest that memory for future intentions provides a more sensitive task criterion than does memory for past events for assessing individual differences in self-reports of episodic memory problems. Task-specific differences in reliance on frontally mediated executive processes might underlie these differences.     

The importance of cue familiarity and cue distinctiveness in prospective memory

Abstract

Both retrospective cued-memory tasks and event-based prospective memory tasks require that cue and target information be associated, and that aspects of that association be reinstated for successful remembering. These functional similarities between retrospective memory and prospective memory were the bases for the hypothesis that the familiarity and the distinctiveness of the target event (cue) would influence prospective memory performance. Experiment 1, focusing on target familiarity, found a nominal advantage in prospective memory with unfamiliar target events. Experiment 2 showed a significant benefit for unfamiliar target events, as well as for target events that were distinctive relative to the local context. Additionally, prospective memory performance did not reliably correlate with explicit retrospective memory tasks (recall and recognition), but did correlate with an indirect retrospective memory task (word fragment completion). This pattern suggests and helps specify the general view that prospective memory processes may be similar to those involved in both direct and indirect tests of retrospective memory.     

Pro- and Retrospective Memory in Late Adulthood

Everyday tasks, such as getting groceries en route from work, involve two distinct components, one prospective (i.e., remembering the plan) and the other retrospective (i.e., remembering the grocery list). The present investigation examined the size of the age-related performance declines in these components, as well as the relationship between these components and age-related differences in processing resources. The subjects were 133 community-dwelling adults between 65 and 95 years of age. They completed a large battery of tests, including tests of pro- and retrospective memory as well as tests for indexing processing resources. The results showed similar age-related declines in pro- and retrospective memory. There was only a weak relationship between pro- and retrospective memory, and the age-related decline in processing resources was related more strongly to retro- than prospective memory.     

Prospective memory across the lifespan: Investigating the contribution of retrospective and prospective processes

Prospective memory performance follows an inverted U-shaped function across the lifespan. Findings on the relative contribution of purely prospective memory and retrospective memory processes within prospective memory to this trajectory are scarce and inconclusive. We analyzed age-related differences in prospective memory performance across the lifespan in a cross-sectional design including six age groups (N = 99, 7–83 years) and investigated possible mechanisms by experimentally disentangling the relative contributions of retrospective memory and purely prospective memory processes. Results confirmed the inverted U-shaped function of prospective memory performance across the lifespan. A significant interaction between process type and age group was observed indicating differential relative contributions of retrospective memory and purely prospective memory processes on the development of prospective memory performance. Our results showed that mainly the pure prospective memory processes within prospective memory lead to lower prospective memory performance in young children and old adults. Moreover, the relative contributions of the retrospective memory and purely prospective memory processes are not uniform at both ends of the lifespan, i.e., in later adulthood the purely prospective memory processes seem to determine performance to an even greater extent than in childhood. Nevertheless, age effects were also observed in the retrospective component which thus contributed to the prospective memory performance differences between the age groups.     

Prospective memory performance in preschoolers: Inhibitory control matters

The present study focuses on prospective memory in preschoolers. We specifically investigated the effects of age, retrospective memory, and task interruption on prospective memory performance. In the first experiment, testing 60 children aged 3, 4 and 5 years with a prospective memory task that required active ongoing task interruption we obtained an age effect indicating better prospective memory performance for the two older cohorts. Varying retrospective memory load did influence prospective memory response time but did not affect prospective memory accuracy. However, retrospective memory performance showed an age effect and individual differences in retrospective memory ability were related to individual differences in prospective memory performance, even after partialling age. In the second study, we applied a prospective memory task that did not require active ongoing task interruption. Here, testing 62 children aged 3, 4 and 5 years we still found an age effect in retrospective memory but neither an effect of age nor retrospective memory on prospective memory performance. It is concluded that preschoolers even at the age of 3 years can perform prospective memory tasks to a certain extent. Moreover, while retrospective memory still seems to be somewhat related to prospective memory in preschoolers, inhibitory control required for ongoing task interruption seems to be an especially important factor influencing task performance in preschoolers.     

Differential effects of age on prospective and retrospective memory tasks in young, young-old, and old-old adults

Remembering to do something in the future (termed prospective memory) is distinguished from remembering information from the past (retrospective memory). Because prospective memory requires strong self-initiation, Craik (1986) predicted that age decrements should be larger in prospective than retrospective memory tasks. The aim of the present study was to assess Craik's prediction by examining the onset of age decline in two retrospective and three prospective memory tasks in the samples of young (18-30 years), young-old (61-70 years), and old-old (71-80 years) participants recruited from the local community. Results showed that although the magnitude of age effects varied across the laboratory prospective memory tasks, they were smaller than age effects in a simple three-item free recall task. Moreover, while reliable age decrements in both retrospective memory tasks of recognition and free recall were already present in the young-old group, in laboratory tasks of prospective memory they were mostly present in the old-old group only. In addition, older participants were more likely to report a retrospective than prospective memory failure as their most recent memory lapse, while the opposite pattern was present in young participants. Taken together, these findings highlight the theoretical importance of distinguishing effects of ageing on prospective and retrospective memory, and support and extend the results of a recent meta-analysis by Henry, MacLeod, Phillips, and Crawford (2004).     

Age-related deficits in prospective memory: the influence of task complexity.

Younger and older subjects were asked to perform an action whenever target words occurred during a short-term memory task. The difficulty of this prospective memory task was manipulated by varying the delay preceding the occurrence of a target event and by varying the number of different target events. Age-related performance differences emerged when there were several different target events but not when there was one target event presented several times. Age-related performance differences, when they occurred, were associated with poorer retrospective memory for the target events. The results were interpreted in terms of a componential analysis of prospective memory, which assumes both similarities and differences between prospective and retrospective memory.     

The effect of perceptual distinctiveness on the prospective and retrospective components of prospective memory in young and old adults.

In two experiments, the effect of perceptual distinctiveness of cues on prospective memory performance was examined. Young and older adults completed a visual search task with embedded prospective memory instructions. On each trial, participants were asked to indicate the position of a target letter in a letter string, unless either of two letters previously identified as prospective memory cues was presented. Each prospective cue was associated with a specific response. Perceptual distinctiveness was manipulated by spatially displacing a single letter. The prospective component (successful detection of the cue) and the retrospective memory component (recalling the correct response when a cue is detected) were measured separately. Perceptual displacement of cues modulated performance of the prospective component but not the retrospective component. Young adults successfully detected a larger proportion of cues (prospective component) than older adults. However, there were minimal effects of age and no effect of cue displacement on participants' ability to recall the intention once they detected a cue (retrospective component performance). Results are discussed within the context of current theoretical models of prospective memory.     

Prospective memory in children: the effects of age and task interruption

Prospective memory (PM), remembering to carry out a task in the future, is highly relevant to children's everyday functioning, yet relatively little is known about it. For these reasons the effects of age and task interruption on PM were studied in 3 experiments. Children aged 4, 5, and 7 years were asked to name pictures in stacks of cards (the ongoing task) and to remember to do something when they saw a target picture (the PM task). Significant age differences were identified, but age explained only a small amount of variance. As predicted, children in the no-interruption condition performed significantly better than those who had to interrupt the ongoing activity in order to carry out the PM task. An additional finding was that no relation was detected between performance on prospective and retrospective memory tasks. Taken together, these findings provide support for current models of PM and identify ways to assist children's PM.     

基于事件的前瞻性记忆的年老化

采用类别判断任务作为正在进行任务,采用Einstein的研究范式探讨了前瞻性记忆是否随年龄的老化而出现年老化现象。结果表明,当前瞻性记忆任务和当前进行的任务要求的认知过程一致时,前瞻性记忆成绩不会随增龄下降;当前瞻性记忆任务和当前进行的任务要求的认知过程不一致时,前瞻性记忆出现了年老化现象;前瞻性记忆成绩和自由回忆成绩无显著相关     

靶线索与意向关联性对事件性前瞻记忆的影响

采用基于双重任务的研究范式,操纵线索与意向的关联性、分心水平以及线索区别性,考察了前瞻记忆的前瞻成分和回溯成分在基于事件的前瞻记忆中的作用。结果表明：（1）靶线索与意向关联性对前瞻记忆的回溯成分有显著影响,靶线索与意向高关联时,意向提取过程符合自动加工;靶线索与意向低关联时,意向提取过程符合策略加工。（2）靶线索的区别性对前瞻记忆的前瞻成分有显著影响,靶线索区别性特征显著提高对线索的识别水平,符合自动加工,当靶线索特征不显著时需要策略加工。     

The role of processing resources in age-related prospective and retrospective memory within old age

This study investigated the role of processing speed and working memory in prospective and retrospective memory (i.e., free recall) performance within old age. The aim was to examine age-related differences in both memory domains within the age range of 65 to 80 years. The sample consisted of 361 older adults from Wave 1 data of the Zurich Longitudinal Study on Cognitive Aging. Using structural equation modeling, prospective memory, free recall, working memory, and processing speed were identified as latent constructs. Age effects were found to be larger for prospective memory than for free recall. Furthermore, when controlling for individual differences in working memory and processing speed, unique age effects remained for prospective, but not retrospective, memory performance. Results indicate that, within old age, prospective memory represents a distinct memory construct that is partially independent of age-related individual differences in speed of processing, working memory, and retrospective memory.     

The source of adult age differences in event-based prospective memory: a multinomial modeling approach

Event-based prospective memory involves remembering to perform an action in response to a particular future event. Normal younger and older adults performed event-based prospective memory tasks in 2 experiments. The authors applied a formal multinomial processing tree model of prospective memory (Smith & Bayen, 2004) to disentangle age differences in the prospective component (remembering that you have to do something) and the retrospective component (remembering when to perform the action) of prospective memory performance. The modeling results, as well as more traditional analyses, indicate age differences in the resource-demanding prospective component.     

Memory and metamemory performance in older adults: One deficit or two?

In two separate experiments, three groups of older adults (50-80 years old) were shown lists of forename-surname pairs. At test subjects were cued with the surname and asked whether they knew the forename (prospective evaluation). Subjects attempted recall for those items they claimed to know and rated their confidence in their answer (retrospective evaluation). In Experiment 1 subjects saw the name list on 5 successive occasions and attempted recall after each. The older subjects recalled fewer items, but there were no age differences on retrospective memory evaluation. There was a marginally significant age effect on the prospective memory evaluation, which on closer inspection appeared to be a scaling effect related to recall performance. Experiment 2 verified this conclusion in a sample of older adults taking part in a training study extended over many weeks. The main implication of this work is that studies that compare metamemory accuracy in groups that differ in baseline memory performance should be careful before drawing conclusions about metamemory independently of memory performance.     

Event‐based prospective memory and obsessive–compulsive disorder intrusive obsessional thoughts

Recent studies have found poorer prospective remembering among students selected for elevated obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) checking and washing. However, as prospective memory performance also requires retrospective remembering, it is not clear from earlier work whether deficits in prospective memory in samples with OCD symptomatology are due to problems with prospective remembering, or to retrospective memory failures that result in poorer performance on prospective memory tasks. The present study examines performance on matched prospective and retrospective memory tasks among students selected for high (n = 48) and low (n = 44) scores on the Obsessive–Compulsive Inventory‐Revised Obsession subscale. Significant differences between the groups were found in prospective memory (regardless of whether the word was neutral or harm/danger‐related), but not retrospective memory. The findings are consistent with the prediction that obsessional thoughts that occupy working memory capacity would have a deleterious effect on a resource‐demanding prospective memory task. An additional finding was that there were no group differences in self‐reported complaints of problems with prospective memory.     

Age effects in emotional prospective memory: cue valence differentially affects the prospective and retrospective component

While first studies suggested that emotional task material may enhance prospective memory performance in young and older adults, the extent and mechanisms of this effect are under debate. The authors explored possible differential effects of cue valence on the prospective and retrospective component of prospective memory in young and older adults. Forty-five young and 41 older adults performed a prospective memory task in which emotional valence of the prospective memory cue was manipulated (positive, negative, neutral). The multinomial model of event-based prospective memory was used to analyze effects of valence and age on the two prospective memory components separately. Results revealed an interaction indicating that age differences were smaller in both emotional valence conditions. For older adults positive cues improved the prospective component, while negative cues improved the retrospective component. No main effect of valence was found for younger adults on an overt accuracy measure, but model-based analyses showed that the retrospective component was enhanced in the positive compared with the negative cue condition. The study extends the literature in demonstrating that processes underlying emotional effects on prospective memory may differ depending on valence and age.     

Predictors of time-based prospective memory in children

This study identified age differences in time-based prospective memory performance in school-aged children and explored possible cognitive correlates of age-related performance. A total of 56 7- to 12-year-olds performed a prospective memory task in which prospective memory accuracy, ongoing task performance, and time monitoring were assessed. Additional tests of time estimation, working memory, task switching, and planning were performed. Results showed a robust relationship between age and prospective memory performance even after controlling for ongoing task performance. Developmental differences in time monitoring were also observed, with older children generally adopting a more strategic monitoring strategy than younger children. The majority of age-related variance in prospective memory task performance could be explained by cognitive resources, in particular planning and task switching. In contrast, no further independent contribution of time estimation was observed. Findings are in line with the development of strategic behavior, as well as executive functioning, in school-aged children.     

认知负荷与编码方式对前瞻记忆及其成分的影响

实验1探究认知负荷（高、低）与编码方式（标准、书写、执行意向）对前瞻记忆的影响,实验2进一步探究其对前瞻记忆两种成分的影响。实验1显示执行意向与书写编码的正确率高于标准编码,而前二者无差异;低负荷的前瞻记忆表现好于高负荷。实验2显示执行意向与书写编码的前瞻成分正确率高于标准编码,而前二者无差异;低负荷的前瞻成分表现好于高负荷;不同认知负荷与编码方式均对回溯成分无影响。结果表明：在意向内容相对简单的情况下,执行意向与书写编码对前瞻记忆的促进作用主要表现在促进前瞻成分的提取,低负荷比高负荷有利于前瞻记忆的成功执行,主要体现在前瞻成分成功率更高。     

Age-related effects in prospective memory are modulated by ongoing task complexity and relation to target cue

Two experiments examined the puzzling variation in the age-related patterns for event-based prospective memory tasks. Both experiments involved a famous faces ongoing task with a feature of the famous face as the target for the prospective memory task. In Experiment 1, a substantial age deficit was found on the prospective memory task when the cue was nonfocal (wearing glasses) to the ongoing task, replicating previous research, but this deficit was significantly reduced with a focal cue (first name John). In Experiment 2, the prospective memory cue (wearing glasses) was held constant and the demands of the ongoing task of naming faces were varied. The substantial age differences found with a nonfocal cue were eliminated when the ongoing task was made less challenging. The findings help reconcile the divergent age-related findings reported in the literature.     

The effect of implementation intentions on prospective memory performance across the lifespan

Differences in the amount and availability of cognitive resources may be responsible for age‐related differences in event‐based prospective memory tasks. We hypothesised that a manipulation which reduces resource requirements by enhancing automatic processing will reduce age differences. Implementation intentions are assumed to satisfy this requirement. We tested a total of 563 participants, 185 adolescents, 193 young adults and 185 older adults in order to investigate whether providing participants with implementation intention instructions would improve performance, whether any improvement would vary with age, and whether it would affect the prospective component or the retrospective component. The results showed a benefit of implementation intentions for older adults, but not for adolescents and for young adults. Separate analyses for the prospective and the retrospective components revealed that this effect was based mainly on a performance facilitation of the prospective component. These results suggest that implementation intentions provide a means to reduce age differences in prospective memory. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.