Differential effects of cognitive behavior modification on seriously emotionally disturbed adolescents exhibiting internalizing or externalizing problems

This study examined the differential effects of a school-based cognitive behavior modification intervention on (a) the interpersonal/social skills and (b) the social competence and school adjustment of two groups of middle school students identified as seriously emotionally disturbed. One groups of students exhibited internalizing emotional problems and the other group exhibited externalizing emotional problems. The objective of the study was to investigate whether the effectiveness of a school-based cognitive behavior modification intervention was significantly related to the type of emotional disturbance a student exhibits (i.e. internalizing or externalizing emotional disturbance). The sample consisted of an experimental and a control group of middle school students identified as seriously emotionally disturbed. The intervention was implemented in 23 biweekly 42-minute sessions. The results indicated that teacher ratings of student social competence and school adjustment were sensitive to treatment effects, although students' social skills self-ratings were not significantly affected by the treatment. A differential treatment effect was established in that externalizing students were significantly more responsive than internalizing students.     

Development of a school-based treatment program for middle school youth with ADHD

The authors conduct an evaluation of a middle school-based treatment program for youth with ADHD during early stages of treatment development. The studies focus on interpreting outcome trends in preliminary data and identifying assessment issues that will be important to consider when conducting a clinical trial. Parent reports indicate that the majority of students benefit from improvements in academic, social, and overall functioning. Although teachers report beneficial effects for the majority of the participants in the program, there is little agreement about individual students. Measurement problems are associated with understanding normal change during a school year, accounting for normal behavior changes in December and May, and considerable disagreement between teachers. Suggestions to guide future work in this area are provided.     

Agreement among adolescents, parents, and teachers on adolescent personality

Agreement between adolescents, mothers, fathers, and teachers on adolescents' personality traits was investigated in a longitudinal study. The targets for personality ratings were the adolescents who participated in the European Youth Heart Study in Estonia. There were 593 participants in the first wave and 480 participants in the follow-up study 3 years later. Adolescents' self-reports as well as father, mother, and teacher ratings were collected using questionnaires to measure the five-factor model of personality. In both waves, inter-rater agreement was highest between mothers and fathers, was low to moderate for parent-self ratings, and was lowest for ratings between self and teacher, mother and teacher, and father and teacher. Test-retest correlations were moderate for parent and self-ratings but failed to reach statistical significance for three of the five teacher-rated traits, suggesting lower reliability of teacher ratings. Possible explanations for the low agreement between teachers and other judges are discussed.     

An Evaluation of a Classwide Intervention Package Involving Self-Management and a Group Contingency on Classroom Behavior of Middle School Students

The effectiveness of an intervention package involving self-management and a group contingency at increasing appropriate classroom behaviors was evaluated in a sample of middle school students. Participants included all students in each of the 3 eighth-grade general education classrooms and their teachers. The intervention package included strategies recommended as part of best practice in classroom management to involve both building skill (self-management) and reinforcing appropriate behavior (group contingency). Data sources involved assessment of targeted behaviors using Direct Behavior Rating—single item scales completed by students and systematic direct observations completed by external observers. Outcomes suggested that, on average, student behavior moderately improved during intervention as compared to baseline when examining observational data for off-task behavior. Results for Direct Behavior Rating data were not as pronounced across all targets and classrooms in suggesting improvement for students. Limitations and future directions, along with implications for school-based practitioners working in middle school general education settings, are discussed.     

Organization interventions as a mediator of change in grades in the Challenging Horizons Program

This study evaluated whether an organization intervention was a mediator of change for grade point average (GPA) in a randomized clinical trial of a school-based treatment program for adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A demographically diverse sample of 148 participants (105 males) with a diagnosis of ADHD were recruited from nine middle schools. Comprehensive diagnostic evaluations were completed and participants were randomized into one of three conditions (two active treatment conditions, one control condition) for a randomized clinical trial that lasted an entire school year. The results of the trial are reported elsewhere (Evans et al., 2016; Schultz et al., 2017); in this study we evaluated four of the criteria for determining mediation as reported by Kazdin (2007) to determine whether response to the organization intervention in this school-based treatment program mediated the relationship between dosage and GPA beyond previous GPA. The results provided evidence that response to the organization intervention mediated the relationship between intervention dosage and change in GPA.     

Effects of a school mental health project: A one-year follow-up

Matched samples of children who had (Terminators) or had not (Nonterminators) successfully participated in a school-based project for the early detection and treatment of school maladaption were compared on teacher ratings of adjustment with a control sample having no prior program contact. Terminators were found to have significantly more positive school adjustment ratings than Nonterminators and Controls, both five and 12 months after their final program contact. These data support the conclusion that the program has positive consequences for children in the primary grades which generalize to new classroom settings and remain stable over time. The absence of adjustment differences between Nonterminators and Controls suggests the importance of developing alternative approaches for those not benefiting from the program.     

Evaluation of Violence Prevention Approaches Among Early Adolescents: Moderating Effects of Disability Status and Gender

High prevalence rates of aggression during adolescence and associated adjustment difficulties for perpetrators and victims highlight the need for effective violence prevention programs. School-based prevention programs are advantageous as they occur in a key setting for youths' social and emotional development. The current study compared the efficacy of a combined universal violence prevention approach that included individual-level skill-building (i.e., lessons from Second Step) and school environment (i.e., Olweus Bullying Prevention Program; OBPP) interventions to OBPP alone. Participants were 231 sixth, seventh, and eighth graders (ages 11–15; M?=?12.6, SD?=?1.0) in middle school (48?% male, 67?% African American). A total of 14 classrooms were randomly assigned to the combined intervention (seven) or OBPP only comparison (seven) condition, split evenly across grades. Intervention effects were moderated by disability status and gender. Among students without disabilities those who received the combined intervention reported greater increases in anger regulation coping skills than those in the comparison condition. In contrast, among youth with disabilities greater increases in teacher-rated social skills were found for students in the combined intervention than students in the comparison condition at posttest. Gender-moderated effects included greater decreases in teacher ratings of externalizing problems and bullying behaviors for boys in the combined intervention versus the comparison condition at posttest. Study results inform school-based violence prevention programs and are discussed along with implications.     

Dimensions of Pediatric Procedural Distress: Children's Anxiety and Pain During Immunizations

The purpose of this study was to isolate and compare children's procedural anxiety and pain. The study was conducted in a school-based pediatric health clinic with 39 fourth graders receiving 3 injection vaccinations over a 6-month period. Child and nurse ratings and an observational scale assessed anxiety and pain. Results suggest that anxiety and pain are highly correlated, however self-report and an observational measure discriminate between these constructs. Self-report and observational measurement indicated more pediatric pain than anxiety, whereas nurse reports did not indicate differences between children's pain and anxiety.     

Longitudinal evaluation of the importance of homework assignment completion for the academic performance of middle school students with ADHD

The primary goal of this study was to longitudinally evaluate the homework assignment completion patterns of middle school age adolescents with ADHD, their associations with academic performance, and malleable predictors of homework assignment completion. Analyses were conducted on a sample of 104 middle school students comprehensively diagnosed with ADHD and followed for 18 months. Multiple teachers for each student provided information about the percentage of homework assignments turned in at five separate time points and school grades were collected quarterly. Results showed that agreement between teachers with respect to students assignment completion was high, with an intraclass correlation of .879 at baseline. Students with ADHD were turning in an average of 12% fewer assignments each academic quarter in comparison to teacher-reported classroom averages. Regression analyses revealed a robust association between the percentage of assignments turned in at baseline and school grades 18 months later, even after controlling for baseline grades, achievement (reading and math), intelligence, family income, and race. Cross-lag analyses demonstrated that the association between assignment completion and grades was reciprocal, with assignment completion negatively impacting grades and low grades in turn being associated with decreased future homework completion. Parent ratings of homework materials management abilities at baseline significantly predicted the percentage of assignments turned in as reported by teachers 18 months later. These findings demonstrate that homework assignment completion problems are persistent across time and an important intervention target for adolescents with ADHD.     

Observations and ratings of tics in school settings

This paper describes the findings of a school-based tic assessment procedure (direct observations, teacher rating scales) for hyperactive children with comorbid tic disorder. Rates of motor tic frequency were found to be moderately stable across both days and school settings. Correlations between direct observations of tics and clinician rating scales were generally in the low to moderate range as were correlations between teacher and clinician rating scales. Overall rates of hyperactive/disruptive behaviors were not associated with rates of motor tic occurrence, and the behavioral symptoms of both disorders were also independent for specific intervals of time.This study was supported, in part, by a research grant from the Tourette Syndrome Association, Inc., and P.H.S. grant MH 45358 from the National Institute of Mental Health. The authors wish to thank Joyce Sprafkin for providing valuable clinical services related to the conduct of the school-based medication evaluations and Joseph Schwartz for assisting with the data analyses. We are particularly indebted to the families and teachers who made this study possible.     

The revised perceived locus of causality in physical education scale: Psychometric evaluation among youth

Objectives

Given instances of less than optimal internal consistency levels of the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale when applied to school-based physical education (PE), the aim of the study was to examine the psychometrics of a revised PLOC instrument for use in PE.

Design

A cross-sectional study in which self-report data on behavioral regulations, perceived autonomy support by the PE teacher, and subjective vitality were collected from 1729 students in relation to their PE participation at the elementary school (5th and 6th grade), middle school, and high school levels, including boys and girls.

Results

The revised instrument (PLOC-R) demonstrated satisfactory levels of internal consistency; a sound factor structure; evidence in support of a simplex-like structure; configural, metric, strong, and strict measurement invariance across boys and girls, students who participate or not in out-of-school sport activities, and across the three school grade levels; and nomological validity.

Conclusions

Initial evidence has emerged in favor of the PLOC-R as a scale appropriate for use with 5th and 6th grade elementary, middle school, and high school students to measure the degree of self-determined motivation for participation in compulsory school-based physical education classes.     

Differences in inter-rater reliability and accuracy for a treatment adherence scale

Inter-rater reliability and accuracy are measures of rater performance. Inter-rater reliability is frequently used as a substitute for accuracy despite conceptual differences and literature suggesting important differences between them. The aims of this study were to compare inter-rater reliability and accuracy among a group of raters, using a treatment adherence scale, and to assess for factors affecting the reliability of these ratings. Paired undergraduate raters assessed therapist behavior by viewing videotapes of 4 therapists' cognitive behavioral therapy sessions. Ratings were compared with expert-generated criterion ratings and between raters using intraclass correlation (2,1). Inter-rater reliability was marginally higher than accuracy (p = 0.09). The specific therapist significantly affected inter-rater reliability and accuracy. The frequency and intensity of the therapists' ratable behaviors of criterion ratings correlated only with rater accuracy. Consensus ratings were more accurate than individual ratings, but composite ratings were not more accurate than consensus ratings. In conclusion, accuracy cannot be assumed to exceed inter-rater reliability or vice versa, and both are influenced by multiple factors. In this study, the subject of the ratings (i.e. the therapist and the intensity and frequency of rated behaviors) was shown to influence inter-rater reliability and accuracy. The additional resources needed for a composite rating, a rating based on the average score of paired raters, may be justified by improved accuracy over individual ratings. The additional time required to arrive at a consensus rating, a rating generated following discussion between 2 raters, may not be warranted. Further research is needed to determine whether these findings hold true with other raters and treatment adherence scales.     

THE INFLUENCE OF UPWARD FEEDBACK ON SELF- AND FOLLOWER RATINGS OF LEADERSHIP

The impact of upward feedback (followers' perceptions of leadership provided to leaders) on leaders' self-evaluations and followers' subsequent ratings of leadership was assessed in a field setting. Subjects were 978 student leaders and their 1,232 followers. Results indicated that overall, leaders' behaviors as rated by followers improved after feedback. Leaders' self-evaluations following feedback became more similar to the evaluations provided by followers. Interestingly, when leaders were grouped according to whether feedback was positive, neutral, or negative based on agreement between self- and follower ratings, differences between groups in post-feedback self-evaluations and follower ratings emerged. Self-evaluations for leaders receiving negative feedback (high self- relative to followers' ratings) went down, while self-evaluations for leaders receiving positive feedback (low self- relative to follower's ratings) went up. Follower ratings of leaders who received negative feedback improved following feedback to leaders, while there was no change in follower ratings for those receiving positive feedback. Implications for using upward feedback in organizations are discussed.     

The influence of school environment and self-regulation on transitions between stages of cigarette smoking: a multilevel analysis.

In this research, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to address how school context influences the likelihood of transitioning between stages of cigarette smoking as well as modifies the individual-level risk factor of self-regulation. Survey data were collected from 25,186 middle and high school students attending 38 public schools in Kentucky. Results show that students are less likely to increase use in schools with higher levels of teacher discipline and faculty involvement. The analyses of the multi-level interactions between self-regulation and school context reveal that students possessing low emotional regulation are more likely to initiate experimental smoking in schools with poor levels of discipline and involvement than similar types of students in schools with higher levels of these characteristics. This study illustrates how psychological risk factors for substance use may vary across social environments.     

Self-evaluation by adolescents in a psychiatric hospital school token program

Nine adolescent boys with a history of high rates of disruptive classroom behavior were selected from a psychiatric hospital school and placed in a remedial reading class after school in which various factors in a token reinforcement program involving self-evaluation were investigated. The effects of self-evaluation, in the form of a rating the students gave themselves about the appropriateness of their classroom behavior, were first assessed. While the students' ratings of their own behavior correlated highly with the teacher's ratings and evaluations made by independent observers, the self-evaluations did not lead to a reduction in disruptive behavior. A token reinforcement program, in which the teacher rated the students' level of appropriate behavior and in which the students traded earned rating points for prizes, clearly led to a reduction of disruptive behavior. When the students were given the opportunity to evaluate their own behavior and to receive rewards in exchange for the evaluation, they returned to their former rates of disruptive behavior.     

Conflict resolution and peer mediation in middle schools: extending the process and outcome knowledge base

Many professional educators are implementing school-based prevention focused on conflict resolution (CR) and peer mediation (PM). The authors conducted research on CR-PM in 3 middle schools. Specifically, they surveyed teachers and students, tracked disciplinary incidents across school years, collected mediation data, and compared mediators with a matched sample to determine attitudinal change as a result of PM training and experience. The authors also surveyed peer mediators and disputants about program satisfaction, as well as peer mediators and their parents about the generalization of PM skills. The authors conclude with implications for developing future CR programs, including a focus on mediation-process evaluation as well as schoolwide outcome measures and the use of peer mediation training as an intervention for students at risk.     

Methodological issues in school-based evaluation

Methodology in school-based evaluation is importantly affected by economic and ethical constraints often absent or less pressing than in larger-scale evaluations. These and other factors also operate in the specialized school-based evaluations such as that of school psychological services. Defensible evaluation designs must take into account the impossibility of random assignment and reduced options for the use of control groups. In addition there are numerous pressures on the construction and deployment of measuring devices and a need for ingenuity in performing statistical analyses. This article explicates these issues and outlines alternative approaches to methodology which can result in usable data for school decision making.     

Comparative Effects and Social Validation of Support Strategies to Promote Mindfulness Practices Among High School Students

Abstract

We compared the effects of support strategies for promoting formal mindfulness practices of 9th grade high school students who participated in a 10-week school-based mindfulness education program. The students also completed social validity ratings of the support strategies they selected and the formal mindfulness practices they learned. All of the support strategies were associated with increased average minutes of formal mindfulness practices. Students who did not select an extra support strategy also had increased minutes of formal mindfulness practices but of less magnitude in contrast to the two most effective strategies. The social validity ratings of the support strategies ranged from equivocal to good approval, and the students gave positive ratings to the majority of formal mindfulness practices. We discuss the implications of these findings for designing mindfulness education programs, implementing practice-promoting support strategies, and conducting mindfulness research with school children and youth.     

Implementing a teacher-student relationship program in a high-poverty urban school: Effects on social, emotional, and academic adjustment and lessons learned

The primary purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of a program designed to improve adolescents' relationships with at least one teacher in an urban high school. All participating students were nominated by teachers as having significant emotional and behavioral problems and approximately half of these youth were randomly assigned to an intervention that included increased positive involvement between each student and one teacher within the school. Teacher ratings of students' social, behavioral, emotional, and academic adjustment at pre- and post-intervention indicated that students in the intervention group had higher grade point averages than did students in the control group following the 5-month intervention but no differences were observed on other variables. Challenges associated with conducting school-based, relationship-focused interventions in high-poverty urban environments and several lessons that were learned in the process of initiating this project are discussed.     

Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation in Middle Schools: Extending the Process and Outcome Knowledge Base

Abstract

Many professional educators are implementing school-based prevention focused on conflict resolution (CR) and peer mediation (PM). The authors conducted research on CR-PM in 3 middle schools. Specifically, they surveyed teachers and students, tracked disciplinary incidents across school years, collected mediation data, and compared mediators with a matched sample to determine attitudinal change as a result of PM training and experience. The authors also surveyed peer mediators and disputants about program satisfaction, as well as peer mediators and their parents about the generalization of PM skills. The authors conclude with implications for developing future CR programs, including a focus on mediation-process evaluation as well as schoolwide outcome measures and the use of peer mediation training as an intervention for students at risk.