Unwanted teenage pregnancies: incidence, interpretation, and intervention.

North American and western European cultures are more permissive than they were before World War II about the increased incidence of teen sexual activity. Societies may be more open and teens are having more premarital sex than they used to, but they surely are not using contraception as often as they should. As such, there is a great deal of unintended and unwanted teenage pregnancies, especially in the US. Even the threat of contracting and/or transmitting HIV has not caused heterosexual youths to change their sexual or contraceptive behaviors. The authors conceptualize explanations for this lack of adolescent behavioral change, including procedures designed to identify deficiencies and to bring about necessary changes in contraception-relevant information, motivation, behavioral skills, and situational constraints. Examples of successful intervention programs are outlined. Sections consider the incidence of premarital intercourse, contraceptive use, and unwanted pregnancies; contraceptive neglect; unintended and unwanted pregnancies; and why teenagers have unprotected sexual intercourse. The conceptual framework of intervening to prevent unwanted teenage pregnancies is presented in sections on providing improved contraceptive information, increasing precontraceptive motivation, improving contraceptive skills, altering situational factors which inhibit contraception, and evaluation research.     

Attitudes,Knowledge, and Sexual Behavior of High-Risk Adolescents: Implications for Counseling and Sexuality Education

A survey was conducted to examine high-risk sexual behavior in a large group of adolescents who were involved with the juvenile justice system. The findings showed that these youth are at high risk for unintended pregnancy and AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Compared to national norms, the sample reported a very early mean age at first intercourse and a high rate of pregnancy. Those who had been involved in a pregnancy reported having begun sexual activity the earliest of those surveyed. Most participants reported an extremely unreliable use of birth control, with this unreliable use of birth control being strongly associated with espousal of high-risk attitudes but generally unassociated with factual knowledge regarding pregnancy and contraception. These findings support the argument for expanding the scope of traditional sex education and beginning sexuality education programs earlier than they usually are in this country.     

Alcohol use as a situational influence on young women's pregnancy risk-taking behaviors

Recent studies have found that many young women just beginning their sexual lives use alcohol prior to intercourse. A large number appear to drink heavily enough prior to sex to compromise their ability to use contraceptives. The question emerges whether there is a relationship between drinking before intercourse, the nonuse of birth control methods, and unplanned pregnancies. The present research describes 43 instances of intercourse which resulted in unplanned pregnancies in 14- to 21-year-olds. Variables examined included alcohol use prior to sex, amount of alcohol consumed, the use of other drugs, the planning of intercourse, respondents' stated reasons for nonuse of contraceptives, and other general demographic data.     

The relationship between barriers to birth control use and actual birth control use among Mexican-American adolescents

This study examined the relationship between barriers to using birth control and actual use of birth control among a national sample of Mexican-American adolescents. Participants were either over age 15 or sexually active (regardless of age). They responded to survey items on birth control use. Chi-square analysis and t tests were used to investigate whether barriers to using birth control were related to actual use during first intercourse and most recent sexual intercourse. It was found that nonusers had significantly higher barrier scores compared with users of birth control. The results indicate that attitudes toward birth control are associated with actual birth control use among Mexican-American adolescents. Additionally, males and females may have distinct barriers to using birth control. It was concluded that a better understanding of the sexual attitudes and beliefs associated with birth control is needed in order to improve programs seeking to increase the use of birth control among this rapidly expanding, high-risk population.     

A journey toward womanhood: effects of an Afrocentric approach to pregnancy prevention among African-American adolescent females

A Journey Toward Womanhood is an Afrocentric pregnancy prevention program for adolescent females developed by Sisterhood Agenda in Durham, North Carolina. In the present study, 33 past participants in the program were compared with 32 nonparticipants. Results suggested that the program had a positive impact, delaying the initiation of sexual intercourse, increasing contraceptive use among those who were having intercourse, and reducing the incidence of teen pregnancy.     

Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors Among Adolescents with Severe Emotional Disturbance

We investigated the sexual risk-taking behaviors of adolescents with severe emotional disturbance (SED). Subjects (N = 70) were clients of the South Carolina Continuum of Care. Information on sexual intercourse, sexual risk-taking, aggressive behaviors, substance use, and suicidal behavior was gathered using a modified version of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention self-report Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Forty-two percent of each race-gender group reported first intercourse before age 13, except for African American females at 63%. Seventy-five to 79% of all race-gender groups reported first sexual intercourse by age 18. Drinking alcohol before age 13 and carrying a weapon in the past 30 days were associated with first intercourse before age 13. Youth reporting first intercourse between ages 13 and 18 were about 12 times more likely to report suicide ideation than those youth who reported never having sexual intercourse. Youth with SED reporting first intercourse before age 13 appear to have an increased risk for unintended pregnancy and for contracting a sexually transmitted disease compared to youth with SED reporting first intercourse after age 13.     

Evaluating the effectiveness of workshop interventions on contraceptive use among first-year college students

This study tested the effectiveness of 4 interventions designed to affect contraceptive knowledge, attitudes, and use among first-year Syracuse University students in New York State in the US. Pre- and post-tests obtained data on demographic characteristics, sexual behavior, contraceptive knowledge, sexual opinions, contraceptive attitudes, and contraceptive progress on a 5-step scale. Group 1 (79 students) received contraceptive information (CI) only. Group 2 (76) received CI and a cognitively oriented intervention. Group 3 (73) received CI and an experience-oriented intervention. Group 4 (77) received a combined cognitively and experience-oriented intervention with CI. The control group included 57 people. 78% on the pretest, and 84% on the post-test, had engaged in sexual intercourse for the first time in high school. 200 indicated previous intercourse in the past 3 months. Groups varied significantly in their knowledge, beliefs, and practices. All groups had greater contraceptive knowledge than control groups. Greater behavior beliefs about contraceptive use occurred in Groups 1 and 2. Groups 3 and 4 showed greater increases in positive attitudes toward use. All intervention students showed greater increases in positive attitudes toward a contraceptive process. Greater increases in the intention to use birth control occurred in Groups 3 and 4. Groups 2, 3, and 4 showed greater increases in reported use of birth control. Group 4 intervention was the most effective for males. Females were influenced by all interventions. Findings affirm the importance of including attitudinal components in sexuality and contraception workshops.     

Adolescent sexual behavior

What is known about adolescent sexual behavior is reviewed. First, the onset of sexual behavior in the teenage years is considered as a function of cohort, gender, and ethnic differences. Omissions in the research on sexual behavior other than intercourse are highlighted. Possible biological, social, and social cognitive processes underlying teenage sexual behavior are then considered. Next, demographic trends in the use of contraceptives and antecedents of regular birth control use are reviewed. Finally, some of the successful program initiatives directed toward altering sexual and contraceptive practices are discussed, keeping in mind the importance and relative lack of well-designed and carefully evaluated programs.     

Mexican-American adolescent sexuality and sexual knowledge: an exploratory study

This article reports the findings of a study designed to examine the sexual knowledge, attitudes, and practices of low-income Mexican- American adolescents. The participants in the study were all about to begin a sex education program in a community health organization in East Los Angeles. The study involved 84 adolescents aged 14-19, 97% of who identified themselves as Mexican-American (the remainder identified themselves as Latino). 51 of the subjects were female and 33 male. The participants completed a 43-item questionnaire concerning demographics, sexual experience and contraceptive use, knowledge of birth control methods, and attitudes towards sexuality and birth control. Only 18 (21%) of the subjects indicated ever having sex. But among this group, 83% reported not using contraception during their last intercourse, and 61% reported never using contraception. Only 22% reported using contraception regularly. Concerning the knowledge of different birth control methods,many of the participants were able to list several methods, but their responses indicated a lack of accurate and specific knowledge about contraceptive methods. In addition to the 43-item questionnaire, 27 of the subjects also completed a sexual and contraceptive knowledge questionnaire. The topics included contraceptive effectiveness, the menstrual cycle, and fertilization. The scores on the questionnaire were low, with an average score of 33% of correct answers. Finally, all 84 participants responded to a sexual attitude questionnaire, which revealed a generally traditional attitude toward the importance of have children, virginity, and the relationship between sex and love.     

The Effects of Two Different Reading Acceleration Training Programs on Improving Reading Skills of Second Graders

It has been well established that poor reading skills in the first grades of primary school can lead to poor reading skills in all coming years. A reading acceleration program (RAP) known to improve reading skills in adults and children with and without reading difficulties (RD) was tested for its effect on children in second grade with standard reading skills. The influence of the RAP on improving all reading skills—decoding, fluency, and reading comprehension—was examined. Seventy-nine children in second grade were divided into two study groups and one control group. Each study group received a training program that emphasizes reading skills: decoding, fluency, and comprehension were trained at the levels of words and sentences in Version A and at the levels of words and paragraphs in Version B. Both programs significantly improved reading skills compared with the control group that was not trained: Group A improved word fluency whereas Group B improved accuracy measures (word, pseudo-word, and text). Both training groups showed significantly greater improvement over time than the control group on reading comprehension. We conclude that a RAP training that combines words, sentences, and paragraphs is the most effective for improving reading skills.     

Correlates and predictors of HIV risk among inner-city African American female teenagers

OBJECTIVE DESIGN: For human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related prevention initiatives to be most effective, they should be broad-based and incorporate multiple domains of influence. This study tested how several ecodevelopmental domains influenced HIV-risk related attitudes and behaviors in a community sample of African American female teens (N = 242). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Outcome measures were number of partners, frequency of intercourse, number of pregnancies, abstinence/condom use, HIV/AIDS-related attitudes and behaviors, and HIV testing. RESULTS: Structural Equation Modeling revealed many direct paths from ecodvelopmental domains to risky sexual behaviors. The findings include having more partners was associated with parental alcohol-related problems, more drug use, and a younger age at first intercourse. More frequent intercourse was associated with less cultural pride and more drug use. More pregnancies were related to a younger age at first intercourse and parental alcohol problems. HIV testing was associated with having experienced sexual abuse, an older age at first intercourse, and stronger self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Prevention programs that focus on risk reduction could expand their focus beyond sexual behavior to include a broad-range of psychosocial domains that are associated with HIV-risk. The effectiveness of prevention programs should be monitored carefully for appropriateness in different ethnic groups.     

Marijuana use and risky sexual behavior among high-risk adolescents: Trajectories, risk factors, and event-level relationships

Adolescents involved with the juvenile justice system have a high incidence of risky sexual behaviors resulting in unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. Substance use may be particularly important as a risk factor for unsafe sexual behavior for this group, and recent evidence suggests a possible association between marijuana use and risky sexual behavior. Adolescents (n = 728; 33% female) on probation were followed for 2 years, at intervals of 6 months, to explore the association of marijuana use and condom use longitudinally and at a specific intercourse occasion. Latent growth curve modeling indicated that greater marijuana use at baseline was associated with a steeper decline in condom use over the 2-year period of the study. In-depth analysis of the most recent intercourse occasion suggested that condom use was less likely if marijuana was being used by the participant or his/her partner and that this association was more pronounced if intercourse occurred with someone the participant had just met. Implications for the prevention of risky sexual behavior in this population are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Effects of working memory and reading acceleration training on improving working memory abilities and reading skills among third graders

Working memory (WM) plays a crucial role in supporting learning, including reading. This study investigated the influence of reading acceleration and WM training programs on improving reading skills and WM abilities. Ninety-seven children in third grade were divided into three study groups and one control group. The three study groups each received a different combination of two training programs: only reading acceleration, WM followed by reading acceleration, and reading acceleration followed by WM. All training programs significantly improved reading skills and WM abilities. Compared with the control group, the group trained with only the reading acceleration program improved word accuracy, whereas the groups trained with a combination of reading and WM programs improved word and pseudo-word fluency. The reading-acceleration-alone group and the WM-program-followed-by-reading-acceleration group improved phonological complex memory. We conclude that a training program that combines a long reading acceleration program and a short WM program is the most effective for improving the abilities most related to scholastic achievement.     

无性生育的伦理考量

从有性生育到无性生育,这是人类生育方式的重大变革。无性生育是从细胞水平上对人类生育方式的干预。无性生育技术的出现及其实验,并不意味“人类的自然生育方式将要终结”,它只是有性生育的必要补充。无性生育技术的滥用和无性生育的泛滥有可能导致人类尊严的彻底丧失和以人的尊严为基础的人类明的倒退。对无性生育技术的研究和应用必须实施社会控制。     

The generalizability of story grammar training across setting and tasks

Reading achievement depends in part on children's ability to employ strategies to monitor their comprehension, that is on children's use of metacognitive skills. An experimental intervention program created to foster such skills was evaluated. The story grammar training was designed to increase both strategic reading behavior and explicit, observable comprehension monitoring. Fourth-grade (N = 20) and fifth-grade (N = 16) children were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Maintenance was examined using free and probed oral recall, notetaking, and summarization of brief narrative and expository texts. Generalization was assessed through free and probed written recall of a lengthy text, which required both strategic reading and summarization skills for adequate comprehension. Skill acquisition was clearly demonstrated; trained readers were able to recall and summarize passages better than untrained readers. The evidence for generalization was more equivocal: although trained readers' free recall was significantly better than that of untrained readers, their probed recall was not. Provision of metacognitive skills that promote active comprehension monitoring, then, appears to provide children with the tools needed for independent reading. Programs designed to provide such skills may aid efforts to prevent reading failure.     

Emotional inhibition of effective contraception

Negative emotional responses to sex such as anxiety, guilt and fear tend to inhibit sexual behavior. When they are not sufficient to inhibit sexual intercourse, however, they frequently interfere with the ability to plan for, or cope with the consequences of sexual activity. More specifically, these emotional responses to sex frequently interfere with the ability to apply thoughtful and careful logic to contraceptive decision making, and thereby inhibit the use of effective methods of birth control. The current article is a review of the empirical support for emotional inhibition of contraception, and an examination of the psychological mechanisms by which these responses to sex mediate birth control behavior.     

An Examination of Young Adolescents' Knowledge of and Attitude Toward Sexuality According to Perceived Contraceptive Responsibility1

A total of 442 ninth-grade, black, inner city adolescents participated in a survey of their knowledge of human reproduction, level of self-esteem, and attitudes toward birth control and sexual intercourse. Ninety-two percent of the females and 33% of the males responded that they or they and their partner were responsible for using birth control. The 148 males perceiving contraceptive responsibility as belonging to their partner or no one were most accepting of sexual intercourse and agreed that teenage parenthood is an index of adulthood. Girls were nearly unanimous in their low level of acceptance of sexual intercourse. Annual birth statistics from their high school indicate, however, that a minimum of 13% of these ninth-grade girls will become pregnant in the ensuing academic year. The apparent contradictions of young adolescents' knowledge of and attitudes toward sexuality are discussed in the context of developmental theory.     

Sexual Socialization Messages on Entertainment Television: Comparing Content Trends 1997–2002

Previous content analyses of sex on television have relied on differing measures and sampling strategies, which makes it difficult to compare patterns of sexual portrayals over time. This large-scale study (N = 2,817 programs) examines the sexual messages presented on television across both broadcast and cable channels over a 5-year period, applying identical measures to three biennial samples of program content. Results demonstrate that sexual talk and behavior are highly frequent aspects of the television environment. Talk about sex is shown more often than sexual behavior, though both types of content increased significantly from 1997/1998 to 2001/2002. Over that time span, the percentage of shows portraying sexual intercourse doubled from 7 to 14%. Results also show that topics related to sexual risks or responsibilities (e.g., condom use, abstinence) are increasingly included on television, but nonetheless remain infrequent overall. Such safe sex messages occur most frequently in program environments where they are most relevant (i.e., when sexual intercourse is included in the story). The content analysis findings are discussed in terms of their implications for audience effects.     

Paradox of Parental Involvement in Sexual Health and Induced Abortions Among In-school Female Adolescents in Southwest Nigeria

Prevalent early sexual initiation and unprotected sex involvement with various partners create dilemmas for adolescents and their parents. This article explores parents' involvement in their adolescents’ sexual and reproductive health, particularly with respect to terminating unintended pregnancies. This was done to gain an understanding of the dynamics of parental involvement in resolving anxieties concerning unintended pregnancy and the reasons for seeking induced abortions. The study used a mixed method approach, and 460 female students aged 13–20 years completed the self-administered questionnaire. Thirty-three parents who had an adolescent daughter in school and 31 female adolescents participated in eight different focus group discussion sessions, respectively. A quarter of the respondents had been pregnant at least once. All the females who had ever become pregnant had tried to terminate the pregnancy. Few (9 %) had used contraception at their last sexual intercourse. Twenty nine percent of the respondents had discussed sexual matters with their parents and 82 % preferred discussing such matters with their mothers. In the qualitative findings, some of the parents reported not having been involved in or supportive of terminating their daughter's pregnancy, but confirmed that some mothers had reasons to support induced abortions. Major reasons for mothers' involvement in their daughters' induced abortions were to avoid the social stigma, disruption of schooling and financial stress associated with unintended pregnancy. Resolving conflicting parental interests and values concerning adolescent sexuality and induced abortions is essential for promoting adolescent sexual health in Nigeria.     

Adolescent males' sexual behavior and contraceptive use: implications for male responsibility

A recent US survey of single 17-21 year old men, indicated that 17.1% used a condom at 1st intercourse and 15.5% used a condom at the most recent intercourse. Withdrawal is also used: 10.0% and 7.4% respectively. Condom use was correlated with being older at 1st intercourse, having a higher educational level, closer association to partner, and sense of male contraceptive responsibility. The data used for this analysis was taken from a sub-sample of 624 sexually active males in 1979. The mean age at 1st intercourse was 14.8 years and mean age at most recent was 18.9 years. The pill was also used at 1st intercourse (8.8%) and a total of 43.5% used some method of contraception. In the most recent intercourse cases, 64.7% used some method of birth control and the pill was used 26.5% , condom 15.5%, and withdrawal 7.4%. Conclusions from this data indicate that male methods are important in teen contraception. Condom use at 1st and most recent intercourse was related to both positive and negative characteristics. It appears that males show some contraceptive responsibility initially but later give the responsibility to females. The declining use of condoms indicates it to be a transitional form of birth control. Programs should promote continued use of condoms since use of the pill is low and unwanted pregnancy risk is high. Communication on contraception should be encouraged, so both partners are aware if neither one is contracepting. With the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome epidemic, condom use takes on a whole new context in relation to the decline in use by adolescents.