Development of the Mental Health Locus of Control and Mental Health Locus of Origin Scales

The Mental Health Locus of Control (MHLC) Scale is an area-specific measure of locus of control expectancies designed to predict mental health related behaviors, particularly those occurring in treatment situations. The discriminant validity of the MHLC, in contrast with Rotter's 1-E measure of generalized expectancies, was demonstrated with two mental health related variables: beliefs concerning etiology of psychopathology, and information about abnormal psychology. Beliefs about etiology were measured by the Mental Health Locus of Origin (MHLO) Scale. The primary hypothesis, that individuals with 'endogenous' beliefs about etiology tend to have 'external' expectations for the client's role in treatment, was supported by a statistically significant (p < .001) correlation between the MHLC and MHLO Scales.     

Factorial structure of two health belief measures among older adults.

Confirmatory factor analysis of Wallston's Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale and Krantz's Health Opinion Survey was conducted using 197 nondiabetic and 171 diabetic older adults. Qualified support was found for the 3-factor structure of the Wallston measure when applied to older adults. The Krantz model provided a less-than-adequate representation of the older sample's data. When the items from these 2 measures were combined, a 4-factor structure was found. Multisample simultaneous factor analyses using LISREL revealed that the factor structures of the Wallston and the Krantz measures fit the diabetic and the nondiabetic samples fairly equivalently. Despite the similarities in factor structures, diabetic individuals reported greater belief in powerful others and less desire for behavioral involvement in the health-care process than did nondiabetics.     

Psychological and physical variables as predictors of coping strategies

26 women and 17 men between the ages of 26 and 62 yr. of age and diagnosed as having chronic illnesses were administered four questionnaires to assess physical and psychological variables and coping strategies: the Sickness Impact Profile, the Time Reference Inventory, and the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control. The Jaloweic Coping Scale assessed coping strategies. Canonical correlation indicated a single-factor link (Wilks' lambda) between scores on the first 3 tests, and the subscales of the coping scale. A significant but small correlation of .31 between the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control subscale, Powerful Others, and the coping subscale of Emotion-focused strategies was observed, that with the subscale Chance and the coping subscale confrontive strategies was negative. A second canonical correlation deleting the Time Reference Inventory score of age extension and including the three Sickness Impact Profile subscales was significant and positive for the Composite score and the subscale Palliative of the Jaloweic Coping Scale. Such data suggest that individuals who have a locus of control orientation of Powerful Others respond to chronic illness with emotionally based behaviors. In addition, chronically ill individuals who are physically dysfunctional tend to respond with palliative coping strategies.     

Health Locus of Control After Lung Transplantation: Implications for Managing Health

Health locus of control (HLC) beliefs may influence the health behaviors that patients perform on their own behalf. Likewise, the HLC beliefs that clinicians consider desirable may influence how active they encourage patients to be in managing health. It remains unclear how involved lung recipients want to be and how involved transplant clinicians believe they should be. The aims of this study were to describe HLC beliefs and behaviors manifested by recipients and clinicians in the setting of lung transplantation. Mixed-methods were used, including quantitative techniques to measure demographics, clinical characteristics, and HLC using the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC), and qualitative techniques to explore how HLC beliefs were manifest in the clinical setting. Nearly all participants manifested behaviors consistent with high internality and externality, highlighting the importance of holding ‘dual health locus of control’ beliefs for optimal health management and lending support for recipients and clinicians to share responsibility for managing post-transplant health.Funded by the Nursing & Social Sciences Council of the International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation.     

Locus of control and effects of perceptual tasks on heart rate

The hypothesis was tested that the relationship found in prior research between heart rate changes produced in biofeedback settings and locus of control scores derives from the heart-brain relationship described by the Laceys in 1967, as well as from "expectancies for control." 48 subjects were tested on two perceptual tasks known to elicit changes in heart rate. Significant heart rate changes were observed in response to both tasks, but those changes did not correlate with locus of control as measured by scores on the Rotter I-E Scale and the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale. Explanations for these results are offered.     

The role of personality factors in predicting the reported physical health symptoms of Turkish college students

This study investigates the role of optimism, health control beliefs, perceived health competence, and medical help-seeking variables in predicting the frequency of reported physical symptoms. A total of 345 college students (207 male and 138 female) were presented with the Life Orientation Test, Multidimensional Health Locus of Control, Perceived Health Competence Scale, and Physical Symptom Checklist. Separate stepwise multiple regression analyses were applied to the data obtained from males, females, and the total group of students. Results showed that optimism, medical help seeking, chance health locus of control, and internal health locus of control predicted the reported physical symptom scores of the total sample. Also revealed were the different patterns for males and females. While optimism and internal health locus of control best predicted physical health for males, optimism and chance health locus of control best predicted the physical health symptoms of females.     

Assertiveness, locus of control and coping behaviors used to diminish tension.

To investigate how coping behaviors may be preconditioned by assertiveness and locus of control, a questionnaire was given to 133 undergraduates of whom 87% reported recent tension attributed mainly to academic pressures. From a list of 22 common coping reactions, the students were asked to check those they use to deal with their tensions. The coping responses were also correlated with scores on an assertiveness inventory (AES) and Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control (I-E) Scale. Reliance on one's own initiatives and turning to significant others were the responses most frequently reported as reactions to tension while seeking professional help was ranked last. Male students more frequently reported using marijuana or seeking sexual comfort than females, while females more frequently reported dysfunctional reactions such as spending endless hours thinking about the problem. The AES correlated significantly with problem-solving approaches. The IE Scale showed internals more inclined to meditate; externals indicated a greater likelihood to seek professional help, fantasize, or drink alcohol.     

The development of a smoking-specific locus of control scale

Abstract

A 32-item questionnaire was designed to measure multidimensional locus of control beliefs specifically about giving up smoking (SLC Scale), and administered along with the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC) and a short smoking information questionnaire to 211 smokers. Psychometric analyses of the SLC scales included a series of repeated factor and reliability analyses which resulted in a final three-factor solution, containing 11 of the original SLC items. The three factors represented the following types of locus of control for smoking: a combined Internal-Chance factor, a Significant Others factor, and a Powerful Others factor with Chronbach's alpha coefficients of internal reliability of 0.63, 0.56 and 0.55 respectively. Analyses relating to the reliability and validity of the SLC scale are presented and discussed. As expected the SLC correlated more sensibly and significantly with subjects' reported behaviour and intentions regarding giving up smoking than did the MHLC scales.     

Expectancies and/or Experience: Divergent Views of Perceived Control

This study investigated the assumption, gleaned from several locus of control studies, that "expectancy" and "experience" are interchangeable constructs. All subjects were given the Health Locus of Control Scale (HLC) and the Tiffany Experienced Control Scales (EC). Factor analysis revealed that the scores of the HLC (as a variant of locus of control) did not load on the four main factors of the EC. These results do not support other locus of control studies concerning the interchangeability of expectancy and experience. These results also provide emphasis for the further clarification of the relationships of these two constructs.     

Alternative factor structures of health-related psychological tendencies and their relationship to self-reported health seeking behaviors

Abstract

The MHQ-Multidimensional Health Questionnaire (Snell and Johnson, 1997) and a checklist of twenty Health Promoting Behaviors were administered to 1,011 Italian subjects aged 21 to 80 years. The MHQ measures twenty health related psychological tendencies (e.g, Health Efficacy, Locus of Control, Optimistic Expectations). A Principal Components Analysis was carried out on the twenty scales to study their internal structure. Both a four- and a two-factor solution are discussed, presenting different perspectives on the data. The former solution yielded a larger motivational factor, which we labeled Aspiration for Health, and three smaller factors, which we labeled Optimistic Expectations, Internal Control and Lack of Control. All factors, particularly the first one, discriminated self-reported health seeking behaviors. The latter solution yielded a Health Management factor and a Negative Thinking one, both discriminating health behaviors. Moreover, the two factors provide a useful model for distinguishing efficacy, optimism and internal control in terms of their cognitive and affective components.     

Predictors of proficient technique and successful lesion detection in breast self-examination

Seventy-three women attending a health fair completed a questionnaire that measured demographic and health history variables, knowledge, and current practice of breast self-examination (BSE), Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MHLC; Wallston, Wallston, & DeVellis, 1978), and components of the Health Belief Model (HBM; Rosenstock, 1974) in relation to breast cancer and BSE. These variables formed the basis of a conceptual model of BSE behavior that was examined by having each woman participate in a behavioral trial with a breast model in which her BSE technique and ability to detect simulated tumors was assessed. Regression analyses revealed that self-confidence in the efficacy of BSE was the best single predictor of proficient BSE. Powerful others HLC, knowledge of correct BSE behaviors, and chance HLC, respectively, also contributed significantly to the variance in performance. As anticipated, successful lesion detection was most strongly associated with more proficient BSE technique and higher frequency of BSE practice in the past six months. Internal HLC scores were not predictive of either behavioral measure. Similarly, except for perceived efficacy of BSE, HBM variables showed no strong relationships to observed behavior.     

Racial group differences in help-seeking behaviors

The authors evaluated variations in help-seeking behaviors among Blacks and Whites and the role of cognitive-affective variables as mediators of these variations. Participants were 70 Black and 66 White community college students who completed the SCL-90-R (L. R. Derogatis, 1977, 1994), the Revised Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (T. Bekhuis et al., 1995), the Symptom Interpretation Questionnaire (J. M. Robbins & L. J. Kirmayer, 1991), and a measure of help-seeking behaviors and demographic information. Relative to White college students, Black college students significantly less frequently used psychological or social services and significantly more frequently used religious services. The authors accounted for group differences in religious help-seeking behaviors by beliefs in the power of God and by normalizing symptom attributions. The cognitive-affective variables that were studied did not account for differences in psychological help-seeking behaviors. The authors inferred that to better meet the needs of Black college students, collaboration between mental health services and religious services would likely be beneficial.     

Cognitive development and locus of control as predictors of preschoolers' understanding of safety and prevention

Preschoolers' cognitive level and locus of control orientation and their parents' locus of control orientation were considered as possible predictors of children's abilities to differentiate between safe and unsafe situations (safety score) and specify preventive measures (prevention score). Individual interviews were conducted with 3- to 6-year-old children enrolled at a daycare center, and their parents completed the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control and the Accident Locus of Control (ALOC) scales. As hypothesized, children's level of causal reasoning was positively correlated with their safety and prevention scores. A curvilinear relationship was evident relationship existed with prevention score. Fathers' ALOC score was the only parent measure that predicted children's safety score, while none of the parent measures were predictive of children's prevention score. The findings were discussed in terms of safety education programs and directions for future research.     

Some correlates of health locus of control among multicultural individuals

The relationship of locus of control to depression, anxiety, hostility, and physical health was assessed in a sample of multicultural college students (N = 162). Powerful Others Health Locus of Control was correlated with depression, anxiety, hostility, and recent physical symptoms while Chance Health Locus of Control (CHLC) was correlated with all of the above as well as chronic physical symptoms and major health problems. When controlling for a variety of health risk factors (viz., age, sex, body mass, exercise, smoking, salt, alcohol, and caffeine), only CHLC remained significant in the physical health models. Results support the cognitive model of mental health which emphasize the importance of adaptive beliefs. Specifically, they suggest that issues about control are related to negative affect and indicate that the often-cited relationship of an external locus of control to depression and anxiety also holds for hostility. The findings do not, however, support the view that anxiety and depression are associated with different types of external locus of control but rather suggest a unified set of locus of control beliefs underlying the three types of negative affect. In addition, evidence is provided for the external validity of the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MHLC) Scales with respect to mental health. Further, the results indicate that belief about one’s health may play a significant role in one’s physical health and that the health behavior model of the relationship between locus of control and physical health is insufficient to explain the relationship. As the Chance and Powerful Others MHLC scales were not related to health habits in this sample but were related to mental health (viz., depression, anxiety, and hostility), locus of control beliefs may be related to physical health via their relationship with mental health.     

Reliability and validity of the Parenting Scale of Inconsistency

The purposes of the present study were to develop a Parenting Scale of Inconsistency and to evaluate its initial reliability and validity. The 12 items assess the inconsistency among parents' moods, behaviors, and attitudes toward children. In the primary study, 517 participants completed three measures: the new Parenting Scale of Inconsistency, the Parental Bonding Instrument, and the Depression Scale of the General Health Questionnaire. The Parenting Scale of Inconsistency had good test-retest reliability of .85 and internal consistency of .88 (Cronbach coefficient alpha). Construct validity was good as Inconsistency scores were significantly correlated with the Care and Overprotection scores of the Parental Bonding Instrument and with the Depression scores. Moreover, Inconsistency scores' relation with a dimension of parenting style distinct from Care and Overprotection suggested that the Parenting Scale of Inconsistency had factorial validity. This scale seems a potential measure for examining the relationships between inconsistent parenting and the mental health of children.     

Development and validation of the safety locus of control scale

The Safety Locus of Control Scale was designed to predict employees' accidents and injuries. Internal scorers think they should assume personal responsibility for their safety, and they believe they can take preventive steps to avoid accidents. External scorers assume little personal responsibility for prevention of accidents. Instead, they place more blame on factors outside their control, such as luck or chance. This study showed that the safety scale was effective in differentiating between groups with varying accident histories, which supports the criterion-related validity of the scale.     

Imitation and locus of control

This study dealt with the relationship between Locus of Control and imitation. Based on a review of the social influence literature, it was hypothesized that external individuals would imitate equally under a condition of model-reward and a condition of no model-reward. It was further hypothesized that internal subjects would demonstrate more imitation under a condition of model-reward than under the condition of no model-reward. Male college students were classified as internal or external on the basis of their scores on the Locus of Control Scale. Internals imitated a rewarded model significantly more than a nonrewarded model. Externals imitated both models equally and at a rate comparable to internals who observed a rewarded model. Subject ratings of model competence were also positively related to imitation among internals but not among externals. The results are interpreted as offering support for the general notion of the effect of observer characteristics on imitation.     

Health beliefs and promotion of HIV-preventive intentions among teenagers: a Scottish perspective.

Beliefs concerning the spread of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and preventive behaviors were examined in a sample of 351 sexually active Scottish teenagers. A postal questionnaire, including measures of variables specified by the health belief model (HBM) and preventive intentions, was employed. The relation between HBM measures and reported endorsement of HIV-preventive intentions was investigated. Results indicated that, in general, respondents intended to use condoms with new sexual partners. The majority also intended to carry condoms if they thought they might have sex with a new partner and to ask potential partners about their previous sexual history. Multiple-regression analyses showed that measures of health beliefs, gender, age, sexual experience, and previous condom use accounted for 17.8% to 24.3% of the variance in reported preventive intentions. Perceived barriers to preventive behaviors were found to be important predictors. However, the overall pattern of results raised questions concerning the adequacy of the HBM as a model of the determinants of HIV-preventive intentions, and the need for an extended model is discussed. Separate analyses were conducted for men and women and for 16- and 18-year-olds, and the implications for modeling intention formation in these subgroups are considered. The relevance of these findings to HIV-preventive campaigns is also discussed.