The management of innovation: Recasting the role of creativity

Abstract

This article examines difficulties arising from the deep-rooted assumption that the innovation process exists as a phenomenon incorporating two distinct and identifiable stages of creative discovery and subsequent implementation. An alternative perspective is proposed in which innovation is represented as the process whereby individuals enact new social procedures; creativity is the associated process in which the meanings of the enactments are discovered and labelled. Innovation treated in this manner occurs as the streams of human activities and ideas mutually interact. The starting, ending, and bounding of an innovation project are all parts of a unitary process of meaning-creation within social contexts. “Creative” thoughts and actions interact throughout the process. (“Creativity through the finishing line”; “implementation first and last”). Not least, such an interpretive model avoids the difficulties that have been encountered in attempts to treat innovation as a series of objective stages. It furthermore provides a coherent theoretical status for creativity as the meaning-creating processes within all personal discovery and learning activities.     

Threat Assessment in Schools: A Critique of an Ongoing Intervention

This paper critiques an attempt to apply the FBI threat assessment protocol to an incident involving a homicidal threat by a vocational high school student against the district's superintendent. The student who made the threat was treated in psychotherapy, and the school underwent a threat assessment process that highlighted many operational pitfalls common in assessing homicidal intent in adolescents. Psychotherapy was successful, the student returned to the vocational school, and eventually graduated. Recommendations based on mistakes and successes in performing an FBI-style, profiling approach to threat assessment are made.     

TSUNAMI: Simultaneous Understanding,Answering, and Memory Interaction for Questions

Question processing involves parsing, memory retrieval, question categorization, initiation of appropriate answer-retrieval heuristics, answer formulation, and output. Computational and psychological models have traditionally treated these processes as separate, sequential, independent, and in pursuit of a single answer type at a time. Here this view is challenged and the implications of a theory in which question processes operate simultaneously on multiple question interpretations are explored. A highly interactive model is described in which an expectation-driven parser generates multiple question candidates, including partially-specified candidates. Question candidates act as constraints for a matcher which activates memory items. An answer retrieval process examines question candidates and the active portions of memory in an attempt to generate answer candidates. Answer candidates are examined by an output process that derives the final answer. These processes run simultaneously and interact. Three experiments on human question answering are also described which provide evidence that working memory load during question reading is affected by processes related to answer retrieval.     

Classical and bayesian inference in certain latency processes

Certain aspects of point estimation are treated for two kinds of exponential latency processes. The first unitary process is represented by a simple exponential density in which the rate parameter may be viewed as an unknown constant or as a random variable. If a second, slower exponential process is grafted onto the first, there results a postulated two-component latency between stimulus and response. Moments estimators are derived for the two parameters of this latter density, and the relevance of the second parameter to decision time is emphasized.This research was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grant MH-04439-05. The author would like to express his appreciation to James Baker of Oregon Research Institute for certain helpful comments concerning aspects of this work.     

The Linguistic Therapy of Evaluation: A Treatment Plan for Silvia

This paper describes the treatment of a depressed woman, Silvia (I. Caro, 2001), treated with the linguistic therapy of evaluation. The linguistic therapy of evaluation is a type of cognitive psychotherapy developed from the theory of general semantics. The theory and the treatment are based on the use of language and the role this plays in the development of emotional problems such as anxiety and depression. We briefly describe the main conceptual and assessment issues of the therapy and the procedure followed in the case of Silvia. The aim of the therapy is to change patients' evaluations, that is, to help them to develop an extensional orientation instead of an intensional orientation, which is assumed to be at the core of emotional problems. The paper ends with a brief review of the process and outcome research that has demonstrated the efficacy and the clinical process of the linguistic therapy of evaluation.     

Public Entrepreneurship as Social Creativity

The article begins with an overview of the innovation process and the entrepreneurial process, each treated as separate but interrelated phenomena. The innovation process tracks the evolution of a new idea through time, whereas the entrepreneurial process tracks the activities that entrepreneurs develop to promote and defend the idea against its detractors. The model of innovation and entrepreneurship introduced distinguishes between individual and collective entrepreneurship and identifies two types of collective entrepreneurship: team entrepreneurship and functional entrepreneurship. A Minnesota case study demonstrates the power of both team and functional entrepreneurship. It also illustrates how important the linkages are between the entrepreneurs and their larger community. An innovative idea's development and survival depends on an “ecology of organizations” that provide “venture” capital for analysis and experimentation. The vast networks of contacts and associations represent a form of social capital just as important as the community's economic capital. In this case, both aspects of social creativity—the community resources and the network of social relations—were found to be instrumental in passing and implementing the first public school choice program in the country.     

Assimilation of Problematic Experiences in Linguistic Therapy of Evaluation: A Case Study

In this article the process of assimilation in the problematic experience of tiredness of one patient, María, is shown. María was treated with linguistic therapy of evaluation (LTE), a therapy midway between constructivist and cognitive therapies based on the theory of General Semantics, for 14 sessions. María was one of the most successful cases of LTE. Aims of the study were to show the process of assimilation in a case with good outcome and to explore if this process shows an irregular pattern, with setbacks or jumps between stages. This process is analyzed by the Assimilation of Problematic Experiences Scale (APES), an eight-stage scale that shows the process of assimilation from an experience being warded off, avoided, in vague awareness, clarified, understood, solutions applied, and finally resolved and integrated into the self. Results showed, first, that the process of assimilation reaches APES Stages 5 (application) and 6 (problem solution), and, second, that the process of assimilation showed a clear sawtoothed, irregular pattern.     

Diagnostic and Assessment Findings: A Bridge to Academic Planning for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Increasing numbers of children diagnosed and treated for autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) has impacted both neuropsychologists and educators. Though both play key evaluative and treatment roles, there is no available method or process in place enabling the translation of the neuropsychological report recommendations into a format educational teams can easily use, leading to a gap between neuropsychological recommendations and educational planning. In the following, we review the areas evaluated by a neuropsychologist when assessing a child with an ASD, discuss the domains targeted by educational teams when designing an educational plan, and then present a process that has met with some success creating a "bridge" between the diagnostic/assessment process and the subsequent academic planning. Though presented in the context of ASD, the process described can be used by neuropsychologists for various populations to facilitate partnerships with educators that result in improved care for the child.     

EGF对A431细胞中MMP-12表达的调节

基质金属蛋白酶（MMPs）和表皮生长因子（EGF）与肿瘤的发生和转移有密切关系,为了研究EGF对MMP-12的调节机制,我们用不同浓度的EGF处理人表皮癌细胞（A431细胞）后,观察MMP-12的表达变化。结果显示使用不同浓度EGF处理A431细胞后,MMP-12的mRNA和蛋白水平均有所升高。因此,在A431细胞中,EGF通过上调MMP-12的表达可能会促进肿瘤的侵袭和转移。     

ACQUISITION OF BLENDING SKILLS: COMPARISONS AMONG BODY-CODA,ONSET-RIME,AND PHONEME BLENDING TASKS

Following research on phonological awareness development, this study explores children's acquisition of blending skills using three types of stimuli: body-coda, onset-rime, and phonemes. The results demonstrated that kindergarten children consistently gained proficiency for blending body-coda stimuli prior to onset-rime stimuli and phonemes. The results are interpreted to support an instructional process where blending is treated as a generalizable skill, and children work with the simplest material first. Thus, our proposition is that children be trained to blend body-codas first, then progress to more phonologically difficult blending tasks such as onset-rimes and phonemes.     

What is Wrong with the Concept of Religious Experience?

After briefly mentioning the reason why the concept of religious experience has become a key to understanding Western and non-Western religious phenomena in current religious studies, this paper argues that the concept itself is insufficient to represent the religious phenomena of Islam, because to speak about 'an experience of God' in the context of Islam is misleading. This paper also argues that to consider mystical experience as well as the prophetic revelation that is wah?y within the boundaries of religious experience is confusing. Since the transmission process and contents of wah?y are extraordinary and miraculous, it should not be treated as an ordinary religious occurrence and therefore should not be considered as a personal religious experience.     

Conditioning in sensory evoked seizures

This paper presents the results of conditioning studies in animals and in patients with epilepsy. In animals it was not possible to produce sensory evoked seizures by conditioning unless an epileptogenic lesion was produced. Patients with stroboscopic induced, startle, pattern and musicogenic epilepsy were treated by conditioning techniques. It was at first felt that the nature of this was an extinction process, but certain factors such as the need for reinforcement suggest that the therapy is actually a conditioning process. Changes in the electroencephalogram occur during this conditioning therapy as do changes in galvanic skin resistance.     

Power and the objectification of social targets

Objectification has been defined historically as a process of subjugation whereby people, like objects, are treated as means to an end. The authors hypothesized that objectification is a response to social power that involves approaching useful social targets regardless of the value of their other human qualities. Six studies found that under conditions of power, approach toward a social target was driven more by the target's usefulness, defined in terms of the perceiver's goals, than in low-power and baseline conditions. This instrumental response to power, which was linked to the presence of an active goal, was observed using multiple instantiations of power, different measures of approach, a variety of goals, and several types of instrumental and noninstrumental target attributes. Implications for research on the psychology of power, automatic goal pursuit, and self-objectification theory are discussed.     

When consumers care about being treated fairly: The interaction of relationship norms and fairness norms

Prior research suggests that people assess overall fairness of an event by focusing on the distribution of the final outcome (distributive fairness) and on how they are treated by others during the conflict resolution process (interactional fairness). The primary goal of this work is to use a social relationship framework to study differences in consumers' responses to interactional fairness as revealed by their evaluations of a brand. Two types of relationships are examined—exchange relationships in which benefits are given to get something back in return; and communal relationships in which benefits are given to take care of others' needs. Results of two studies suggest that the type of consumers' relationship with the brand moderates the effect of interactional fairness such that consumers who have a communal relationship are more responsive to interactional fairness under conditions of low distributive fairness while those who have an exchange relationship are more responsive under conditions of high distributive fairness.     

A convex approach for multicriteria decision making in hierarchical systems

In this paper hierarchical multicriteria optimization problems are addressed in a convex programming framework. It is assumed that the criteria are aggregated into a nonlinear function, which renders the problem nonseparable, in general. The projection of the problem onto the criteria space is used to obtain an equivalent separable problem, solved through a relaxation procedure implemented on basis of a multilevel structure. At the upper level of the structure, the decision making process involves the solution of a multicriteria problem formulated in the criteria space. The solution encountered at the upper level originates a lower level parametric optimization problem with separable structure that can be treated by standard coordination-decomposition techniques. The convergence of the overall procedure is ensured. The paper includes an application of the approach proposed for the control of dynamic systems with linear quadratic structure. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Interaction analysis: meaningless in the face of relevance

Interaction analysis has become a standard tool for process-oriented research. Although now a researcher has a choice of instruments, the majority of these are based on the same concept of communication: the sender-receiver model. Communication is treated as a discrete and encoded process that progresses uniformly in time. We critically discuss these assumptions and the limits they put on communication research. It is asserted that instruments for interaction analysis based on the sender-receiver model restrict themselves to the more superficial levels of interaction and are unable to register the more significant events. Therefore they cannot account for a very essential feature of the communication process, namely the creation of meaning. Alternative options are discussed.     

Ampliative abduction

In Peirce's and Hanson's characterization of abductive inference, the abducted hypothesis (but not others) is present in the premises, so that the inference can hardly be taken as ampliative. Abduction has consequently been treated as part of the process whereby already generated hypotheses are judged in terms of their plausibility, simplicity, etc. I propose an interpretation of abduction which supports an ampliative view. It relies on a distinction between two logical stages in the generation of hypotheses, one “factual” and one “explanatory”. I also indicate how we may reconstruct Peirce's and Hanson's original inference in an ampliative form.     

A method for sensation scaling based on an analogy between perception and judgment

Two techniques for studying judgment are discussed. In the first of these one assumes invariance of perception over different judgment processes and conceives of the properties of one judgment process as known. Then, perceptions may be estimated under this process and utilized in the study of other judgment processes of interest. A second technique disposes of the reliance up on a basic, “known” process and instead suggests that perception be treated as free parameters to be estimated from data. The paper then proceeds to show how this second technique may be used under certain conditions on perception themselves. A concept of sensation is introduced which is thought of as generating percepts in formally the same manner as percepts are thought of as generating judgments. The idea is tried out on the perception of movement time. A simple perception process appears to give a good fit to data.