简论孙中山的宗教观

本文沿着孙中山一生的足迹,探索宗教文化对其思想发展的影响。青少年时代．他受洗入教,成为虔诚的基督教徒。在革命生涯的开创时期．基督教精神成为推动其革命的动力之一。迈向不惑之年的孙中山,自愿礼拜民间宗教偶像,发誓遵守洪门帮规,其主旨在于发展革命势力。民国初创时期,孙中山作为民主共和制度的缔造者．努力谋求各种宗教势力的支持,表现出近代民主政治家的风鉴。在其晚年思想的飞跃中,孙中山的宗教观也日臻成熟达观。其一．科学比宗教优越。其二．政治的主义比宗教的主义切实。其三,宗教之仁在于,以心感化民众,为灵魂谋幸福,健全国民人格,培养国家之基。晚年的孙中山力图将基督教文化与中国传统文化融合。他呼吁：“本基督救世之苦心．行孔子自立立人、自达达人之美意。”     

祛魅的启蒙限度——马克思反思宗教批判的一条线索

马克思的宗教批判包含了对黑格尔理性宗教与青年黑格尔派彻底“祛魅”观念的双重反思。针对黑格尔的理性宗教方案，马克思认为其架通无限与有限的“中介”无法克服两个世界的割裂，反而导致了“泛神论”在世俗领域的“复魅”。此后，青年黑格尔派尤其是费尔巴哈的宗教批判，属于当代学者泰勒所刻画的“化减论证”与宗教祛魅的世俗化延伸。然而，马克思主张宗教祛魅与世俗祛魅并非相互重叠的同一过程，并在《资本论》中进一步引申，对资本主义及其拜物教批判尚不能够等同于一般宗教批判意义上的“复魅”批判。“复魅”批判实质上作为“祛魅主义”的逻辑延伸，并不足以理解资产阶级社会“物象化”关系所映现的社会关系本质。最终，马克思的拜物教批判蕴含了对启蒙理性及其批判限度在不同层次的反思：既反思了宗教祛魅与世俗祛魅分别在启蒙逻辑中的运用，也在更广泛的意义上澄清了18世纪启蒙方法论在批判现代“复魅形式”时的缺失。     

私有财产的现代命运——黑格尔早期财产思想研究(1793-1800)

关于私有财产,黑格尔早期(1793-1800)从总体上表现出从肯定到否定,最后再予以重新肯定的复杂态度。在伯尔尼初期和中期,黑格尔主要在批判基督教私人性和实证性的语境下肯定了私有财产的正当性,这类似于洛克等古典自由主义者的财产思想。在伯尔尼后期与法兰克福初期和中期,黑格尔在古典共和主义和统一哲学基础上转而表现出对私有财产以及以保护私有财产为目的的现代国家的批判和否定。这类似于卢梭对私有财产和现代性本身的反思。在法兰克福末期,黑格尔最终不得不重新肯定私有财产的正当性。在某种程度上,这既是综合他自己前两个阶段财产思想的尝试,也是综合古代精神与现代性的尝试。     

恩格斯的宗教批判：从激进启蒙到合理启蒙

宗教批判是启蒙的主题之一,恩格斯宗教批判的理论视域经历了从激进启蒙到合理启蒙的转变。青年恩格斯的激进启蒙立场始终捍卫启蒙理性主义,表现为对基督教信仰的否定,指责基督教信仰是虚无的。在创立唯物史观以后,恩格斯则不同意对启蒙的激进化、极致化推进,不再指责宗教是虚无的,而是深入探讨了宗教同经济社会发展的关系,这体现了恩格斯宗教批判的合理启蒙立场。合理启蒙视域下的宗教批判对发展中国特色社会主义宗教理论提供了有益启示。     

马相伯对非基督教运动的回应(1922-1927)

20世纪20年代,在中国发生了一场声势浩大的非基督教运动。非基运动发生后,作为基督教徒知识分子,马相伯进行了积极的回应。他站在护教的立场,从学理的角度以及历史的事实,对当时反教一方所持的宗教与科学进步不相容的理论观点以及"科学万能"、"宗教是束缚自由的"、"宗教是麻醉民众的鸦片"等论调一一进行了驳斥;他又从政治的角度对反基督教运动的动机予以揭示,指出当时非基运动的政治实质是一些反教的知识分子与青年学生把反基督教作为宣泄民族主义、国家主义情绪的符号对象。在回应过程中,马相伯所发表的见解、思想观点以及所表现出的理性态度在思想史上具有重要的意义,同时在一定程度上也反映出20世纪20年代中国知识分子在中国社会发展道路选择上的思想政治分歧。     

马克思主义宗教批判思想之辨析

马克思主义的宗教批判思想,实质上是19世纪以来越来越鲜明的世俗化过程中反叛宗教神学的一种极端形式。不能从唯物主义世界观直接推出信仰层面的无神论,马克思新唯物主义以及唯物史观形成,同时也是对无神论的明确的扬弃。马克思对宗教持激进的批判与否定态度,至于把这样的态度解读为宗教精神的再度复活,其实是引伸开来的思想,同马克思本人的宗教批判思想无关。马克思的宗教批判从宗教产生的经济与政治关系入手展开对宗教及其社会现象的意识形态批判,也是一种宗教社会学。马克思的社会概念以及社会主义,意在通过从哲学到共产主义实践的转变成为无神论时代社会共同体的新的信仰,但涂尔干与韦伯则以不同的的方式证明了现代性社会的信仰及其认同依然是诉诸于宗教理解方式。如何面对现代世界宗教现象的多样性与复杂性,是马克思主义宗教批判思想面临的难题。     

麦克斯·施蒂纳《唯一者及其所有物》——经典选读之十七

<正>麦克斯·施蒂纳(Max Stirnen,1806—1856),原名J.C.施米特,德国哲学家、无神论者,现代无政府主义先驱,青年黑格尔派主要代表。出生于巴伐利亚的拜洛伊待,先后在柏林大学、哥尼斯堡大学等学校学习,受到黑格尔的直接教诲,并受其深刻影响。1835年毕业于柏林大学哲学系,曾任中学教员,积极参加青年黑格尔派运动,是柏林"自由人"集团的重要成员。主要著作有《唯一者及其所有物》(1844)。他不仅批判黑格尔的思辨哲学,批判基督教,还把批判矛头对准了作为思辨哲学批判者的费尔巴     

恽代英对中共早期基督教政策的探索实践和理论贡献

恽代英是中国共产党早期青年运动领袖。学生时代参加基督教青年会活动,效仿青年会运作模式在武汉建立了多个文化政治社团。为锻造党团成员革命性,呼吁坚定革命信仰,弃绝信奉各种宗教。为壮大革命青年队伍,领导青年师生掀起非基督教运动高潮,反击文化侵略。在革命实践中,恽代英的宗教观念逐步发生变化,为中共的宗教信仰自由政策、基督教自立自养政策的萌发积累了相当的实践经验,奠定了部分政策理论基础。     

作为青年黑格尔分子的恩格斯

1839年底,恩格斯在研究了当时出版的施特劳斯批判宗教的著作以后,开始加紧研究黑格尔哲学,从这时起恩格斯就已经是一个革命民主主义者了。借助黑格尔哲学,恩格斯就有可能为自己的政治的和社会的思想和志向提供一个更加坚实的哲学基础。而在此以前,恩格斯曾经以白尔尼和其它青年黑格尔分子为榜样,借用启蒙运动那种抽象的“每个人的自然权利”作为基础。从恩格斯给格雷培兄弟的信中可以看出黑格尔哲学一开始就给青年恩格斯留下了多么深刻的印象。特别是黑格尔关于“人和神按其本质来说(是)     

马克思的宗教概念

宗教问题,确切些说是对基督教进行批判的哲学解释,这实际上早就是马克思在学术上最感兴趣的中心问题。在当时的德国,人们往往借宗教问题来讨论社会生活中发生的那些轰动一时的重大问题,而人们对黑格尔宗教学说的态度,人们关于基督教起源的某种哲学观念以及关于基督的历史真实性的争论等等,往往能反映出他们的政治立场。马克思和鲍威尔的密切合作,马克思想写宗教艺术论文的打算和他那篇贯穿着哲学思想     

Extremes of self-esteem and narcissism and the experience and expression of anger and aggression

This study examined the level of self-esteem and narcissism as personality variables involved in the disposition to experience and express anger. Three hundred thirty-eight subjects were sampled across two higher education centres and one student teaching programme in the United Kingdom. It was reasoned that individuals with both high self-esteem and narcissism would report especially high tendencies to experience and express anger and aggression and that those with high self-esteem and low narcissism would report the lowest. These predictions were influenced by theories that emphasise the role of threats to high self-esteem in the production of aggression and violence. Results indicate that groups defined by their extreme scores on self-esteem and narcissism scales produced levels of anger expression in the predicted direction. The importance of considering extreme levels of self-esteem and narcissism (in conjunction with other factors) in an analysis of anger is discussed with reference to currently influential theories in the field. Aggr. Behav. 24:421–438, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Social and Personal Determinants of Adolescent Use and Abuse of Alcohol and Marijuana

This article summarizes research on social and personal determinants of adolescent use and abuse of alcohol and marijuana to aid practitioners when designing interventions.     

Cognitive and Personality Characteristics of Masculinity and Femininity Predict Wayfinding Competence and Strategies of Men and Women

Bem (1974) reconceptualized masculinity and femininity as independent and orthogonal constructs that both men and women possess to varying degrees. This perspective was used as a starting point to investigate whether the contributions of gender-typed characteristics can help to account for commonly observed gender differences in wayfinding (the ability to identify one’s current location and successfully navigate to an unseen location in the environment) favoring men. We further divided gender-typed characteristics into cognitive and personality characteristics to assess their separate influence on wayfinding and explored whether gender-typed characteristics predicted self-reported use of masculine wayfinding strategies (i.e., orientation strategies) and self-reported wayfinding competence. Participants were 452 college women and men in a southern U.S. public university. They completed the Gender-Stereotypic Characteristics questionnaire (Diekman and Eagly 2000), a social comparison questionnaire (created by the authors), a wayfinding strategy questionnaire (Lawton 1994), and a wayfinding competence questionnaire (Hegarty et al. 2002). For both men and women, higher masculine cognitive characteristics significantly correlated with greater use of orientation wayfinding strategies typical of men. For men, both higher masculine and feminine cognitive characteristics predicted better overall wayfinding competence whereas for women, only higher masculine cognitive characteristics predicted better overall wayfinding competence. For both men and women, higher feminine personality characteristics predicted poorer wayfinding competence. These results demonstrated the importance of considering cognitive and personality characteristics of masculinity and femininity in explaining individual differences in wayfinding.     

Face aftereffects suggest interdependent processing of expression and sex and of expression and race

Bruce and Young (1986) proposed that functionally different aspects of faces (e.g., sex, identity, and expression) are processed independently. Although interdependent processing of identity and expression and of identity and sex have been demonstrated previously, evidence for interdependent processing of sex and expression is equivocal. Using a visual adaptation paradigm, we show that expression aftereffects can be simultaneously induced in different directions along anger–fear continua for male and female faces (Experiment 1) and for East Asian and Black African faces (Experiment 2). These findings for sex- and race-contingent expression aftereffects suggest that processing of expression is interdependent with processing of sex and race and are therefore problematic for models of face perception that have emphasized independent processing of functionally different aspects of faces. By contrast, our findings are consistent with models of face processing that propose that invariant physical aspects of faces and changeable social cues can be processed interdependently.     

Self-ratings of positive and negative affect and retrieval of positive and negative affect memories

Abstract

Based on analysis of self-ratings of mood, positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) have been proposed as basic, orthogonal mood dimensions (Watson & Tellegen, 1985). The present study asked subjects (N = 61) to not only provide self-ratings of PA and NA terms but also to retrieve personal memories associated with those terms. Self-rated PA was associated with latency to retrieve PA- but not NA-related memories; self-rated NA was associated with latency to retrieve NA- but not PA-related memories. Self-ratings of PA and NA were not significantly correlated, nor were retrieval latencies for PA and NA memories. Individual item correlations also revealed a strong direct relationship between self-ratings and retrieval latency. The dissociations involving a non-self report measure strengthen the distinction between PA and NA, and the individual item correlations are interpreted as showing that self-ratings of affect are based upon the ease of retrieval of personal memories.     

Values and beliefs of vegetarians and omnivores

Following the claim by some anthropologists and sociologists that 1 symbolic meaning of meat is a preference for hierarchical domination (C. J. Adams, 1990; N. Fiddes, 1989; D. D. Heisley, 1990; J. Twigg, 1983), the authors compared the values and beliefs of vegetarians and omnivores in 2 studies conducted in New Zealand. They compared the full range of vegetarians and omnivores on right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, human values, and consumption values. The participants tending toward omnivorism differed from those leaning toward veganism and vegetarianism in 2 principal ways: The omnivores (a) were more likely to endorse hierarchical domination and (b) placed less importance on emotional states. Accordingly, the acceptance or rejection of meat co-varied with the acceptance or rejection of the values associated with meat; that finding suggests that individuals consume meat and embrace its symbolism in ways consistent with their self-definitions.