Gender differences in eating behavior and body weight regulation

Gender differences in food intake and selection first appear in adolescence. Men consume more calories than women, and the sexes have different eating styles, which indicate that women have been socialized to eat in a more feminine manner. Women experience more food-related conflict than men do, in that they like fattening foods but perceive that they should not eat them. Pressures to be thin are present in early adolescence, as noted by dieting behavior starting in very young girls. Women experience more dissatisfaction with their body weight and shape than men do. Sociocultural and psychological factors may be important in the etiology of eating disorders, which are much more prevalent in females than in males. Thus, further studies of gender differences in eating behavior will be important for understanding the etiology of eating and body-weight disorders and for designing gender-appropriate treatments.     

Body image dissatisfaction: gender differences in eating attitudes,self-esteem,and reasons for exercise

Two hundred and thirty-five adolescents completed a questionnaire on the subject of eating attitudes, self-esteem, reasons for exercise, and their ideal versus current body size and shape. As predicted, boys were as likely to want to be heavier as lighter, whereas very few girls desired to be heavier. Only girls associated body dissatisfaction with the concept of self-esteem. Male self-esteem was not affected by body dissatisfaction. Specific reasons for exercise were found to correlate with low self-esteem and disordered eating, regardless of sex. The results are discussed in relation to burgeoning published research in this area.     

Gender and ethnic differences in the relationship between body esteem and self-esteem.

Gender and ethnic differences in the relationship between body esteem and self-esteem were examined to assess the degree to which these variables change in relation to each other over time. Difference scores (between Time 1 and Time 2, 1 week apart) were obtained using the Self-Esteem Scale (M. Rosenberg, 1979) and the Body Esteem Scale (S. L. Franzoi & S. A. Shields, 1984) for 163 White women, 140 White men, 55 Black women, and 37 Black men. The results indicated that the correlation of the difference scores was stronger for the group of White women than for the other 3 groups, suggesting that changes in self-esteem parallel changes in body esteem more for White women than for White men, Black men, and Black women. The findings are discussed in relation to the prevalence of bulimia nervosa among White women.     

Gender attitudes, feminist identity, and body images among college women

Cultural forces influence body-image development in gender-contingent ways, such that women in our society possess more dysfunctional body-image attitudes than men do. However, few studies have examined how women’s body-image experiences relate to their own gender attitudes and ideologies. This investigation of 122 college women assessed multiple parameters of body image (i.e., evaluation, investment, and affect) and different facets of gender attitudes and feminist identity development. Results revealed minimal relationships between body-image attitudes and either feminist identity or adherence to traditional gender beliefs at individual/stereotypic or societal levels. On the other hand, traditional gender attitudes at the level of male-female social interactions were associated with stronger and more dysfunctional investments in cultural and personal appearance standards. The scientific, social, and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Gender differences in idiosyncratic sex-typed self-images and self-esteem

The present study focused on the relationships between idiosyncratic sextyping and self-esteem. Idiosyncratic, feminine, masculine, and nonstereotyped sets of self-attributes, termed self-images (SI), rather than conventional masculinity, femininity and their interaction (androgyny), were used. Findings from two studies with two groups of 337 Israeli early adolescents boys and girls, and 280 male and female university students, using two instruments of sex-typed self-attributes (newly devised Self-Related Self-Image Scale and Spence Personal Attributes Questionnaire) and based on idiosyncratically defined sex images, supported our hypotheses. The findings showed that males' self-esteem was predicted significantly by their masculine SI, that females' self-esteem was predicted significantly by their nonstereotyped SI, and that the feminine SI predicted significantly the self-esteem of neither. Findings based on conventional sex role orientation scores supported former findings of significant relationships between masculinity and male and female self-esteem. The results showed that the self-esteem of male students, but not that of boys, was significantly predicted by their nonstereotyped SI too. Partial support was found for the hypothesis that more females than males are likely to redefine conventional masculine attributes as nonstereotyped. The whole set of findings were interpreted as indicating that self-esteem is dependent on socially rewarded and self-synchronized sex-typed attributes.Study 1 is based on the master's thesis submitted to Ben-Gurion University by the second author under the advise of the first one.     

Gender differences in self-esteem: a meta-analysis.

Two analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in global self-esteem. In analysis I, a computerized literature search yielded 216 effect sizes, representing the testing of 97,121 respondents. The overall effect size was 0.21, a small difference favoring males. A significant quadratic effect of age indicated that the largest effect emerged in late adolescence (d = 0.33). In Analysis II, gender differences were examined using 3 large, nationally representative data sets from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). All of the NCES effect sizes, which collectively summarize the responses of approximately 48,000 young Americans, indicated higher male self-esteem (ds ranged from 0.04 to 0.24). Taken together, the 2 analyses provide evidence that males score higher on standard measures of global self-esteem than females, but the difference is small. Potential reasons for the small yet consistent effect size are discussed.     

Gender differences in the interrelationships between weight dissatisfaction,restraint, and self-esteem

This study investigated the interrelationships between weight, weight dissatisfaction, restraint, and self-esteem in a group of young adult women and men. The subjects were students at the Flinders University of South Australia, whose student body consists of primarily local students from English-speaking backgrounds. A tentative causal model proposed actual overweight to lead to body dissatisfaction, which causes the person to diet, with the resulting failures leading to loss of self-esteem. This model was confirmed by path analysis for women, but not for men. In line with self-concept theory, subjective overweight was more strongly related to self-esteem for women than for men, with restraint mediating this relationship.This research was supported by an Australian Research Council Grant.     

Gender differences in attitudes toward animal research

Although gender differences in attitudes toward animal research have been reported in the literature for some time, exploration into the nature of these differences has received less attention. This article examines gender differences in responses to a survey of attitudes toward the use of animals in research. The survey was completed by college students and consisted of items intended to tap different issues related to the animal research debate. Results indicated that women were more likely than men to support tenets of the animal protection movement. Likewise, women were more likely than men to favor increased restrictions on animal use and were more concerned than men about the suffering of research animals. Analysis of item contents suggested that women endorsed items reflecting a general caring for animals, were more willing than men to make personal sacrifices such as giving up meat and medical benefits in an effort to protect animals, and were more likely than men to question the use of animals in research on scientific grounds. Men, on the other hand, tended to emphasize the potential benefits arising from the use of animals in research.     

A cross-lagged model of self-esteem and life satisfaction: Gender differences among Chinese university students

Past research has shown a close relationship between self-esteem (SE) and life satisfaction (LS). Using cross-lagged structural equation modeling, the current longitudinal study examined the directionality of the relationship among a sample of Chinese university students (214 males and 134 females). In the model, SE and LS at Time 1 were used to predict SE and LS at Time 2, with socioeconomic status (SES) as the independent variable of both constructs. Results showed that SE consistently predicted subsequent LS among both genders, whereas no significant effects of LS on subsequent SE were found. Furthermore, SES had significant effects on LS among both genders. Its influence on SE, however, was significant among females only. Implications and limitations are discussed.     

Gender differences in optimism,loss aversion and attitudes towards risk

Systematic differences in the attitudes of men and women towards risk is well established. In this paper, we investigate the joint role of two prominent psychological characteristics in explaining this difference. Our starting point is that risk assessments can be thought of, in general terms, to combine beliefs about the probability of negative outcomes occurring with a subjective valuation of how painful that negative outcome would be. Exploiting large-scale panel data from the United Kingdom, we find that gender differences in financial optimism and financial loss aversion – the stronger psychological response to monetary losses than monetary gains – explain a substantial proportion of the parallel gender difference in willingness to take risks. This result prevails even after controlling for the Big Five personality traits, suggesting that the prominent psychological characteristics capture different aspects of behaviour than the Big Five.     

Sex differences in the links between attractiveness, self-esteem and the body

Two studies were conducted to determine: if the links between the body and self-perceived attractiveness and self-esteem for men and women differ. Following evolutionary and social learning theories, affective and cognitive links were hypothesized for women's attractiveness while no links were hypothesized for men's attractiveness. Additionally, affective links were expected for women's self-esteem while no links were expected for men's self-esteem. The results obtained supported these hypotheses. Findings are discussed in terms of the societal value placed on women's attractiveness and evolutionary theory.     

Gender differences in body size dissatisfaction among individuals with low,medium, or high levels of body focus

The authors designed the present study to test whether women reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction than did men even when the 2 genders were matched on a measure of degree of body focus. Sixty undergraduates (30 men, 30 women) were screened on attention-to-body-shape scores and divided into high, medium, and low body-shape-focus groups. The participants also completed questionnaires that provided information on age, education, vocabulary ability, levels of depression, and body-image assessment. The groups did not differ (ps > .05) on age, education, vocabulary ability, or levels of depression. However, women in all 3 body-shape-focus categories indicated a larger discrepancy between their real vs. ideal body images (p < .01) than did the men. In the high-body-focus group, there was an 11:1ratio between women's and men's reported real-ideal body-shape discrepancies. Women showed greater body dissatisfaction than did men, even when the genders were matched on a measure of body focus.     

Gender differences in adolescent self-esteem: an exploration of domains

The relationship between gender and global self-esteem in adolescence, while modest, has been well established, with boys consistently scoring higher than girls. In the present study, we sought to understand gender differences in adolescent self-esteem in terms of its component parts. With a relatively large (n = 545) sample of adolescents, drawn from Grades 8, 10, and 12, we specified 8 domains of adolescent self-esteem (personal security, home/parents, peer popularity, academic competence, attractiveness, personal mastery, psychological permeability, and athletic competence) across a number of different instruments and brought them together into a common assessment superstructure. Gender differences as well as the relative contributions of the different domains to overall self-esteem scores were measured. As predicted, boys attained slightly higher global self-esteem scores than girls did, by a difference of .22 standard deviation units. Contrary to our expectation of more balanced domain effects, boys significantly outperformed girls in 6 of 8 domains, whereas the 2 remaining domains exhibited no significant gender differences. There were no main or interaction effects for grade level. In terms of relative contribution of these domains to global self-esteem for the 2 genders, global self-esteem in boys and girls is predicted in very similar strengths and in the same order of magnitude by identical domains of self-esteem: home/parents, personal security, academic competence, attractiveness, and personal mastery--yielding multiple R2s from .88 to .91.     

Gender and racial/ethnic differences in body image development among college students

In the present study we used longitudinal methods to examine body image development during the early part of college. Students (N = 390; 54% female) who identified as African American (32%), Latino/a American (27%), and European American (41%) completed surveys during their first, second, and third semesters at college. There were overall gender and racial/ethnic differences in all three aspects of body image, and both stability and change in body image development. Female students’ appearance evaluation became more positive, whereas male students’ appearance evaluation showed no significant change. Individuals’ body areas satisfaction increased over time, but remained stable when controlling for BMI. Appearance orientation did not change, and there were no racial/ethnic differences in body image development. Experiences in the college environment may play a role in these trends.     

Gender differences in attitudes toward nuclear war and disarmament

A survey on attitudes toward nuclear war and disarmament is used to test two hypotheses: (1) the fundamentally different world orientations of males and females will be reflected in different factor structures for attitudes toward nuclear war and disarmament, and (2) males are more pro-force than females. A confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the first hypothesis. In addition, components of the separate factor structures for males and females were compared. Differences between the means for males and females on three factors extracted from the entire sample were used to test the second hypothesis. Both hypotheses were found to hold for the present sample. Interpretation of the differing factor structures for males and females is presented as well as implications for the more pro-force emphasis of males.     

Gender differences in attitudes toward psychopathic sexual offenders

Although a considerable amount of research has been conducted examining the validity of psychopathy as a psychological construct, relatively few studies have focused on the effects of using this disorder in "real-world" settings to influence the attitudes of laypersons who are making life-altering decisions about offenders. This study attempted to replicate and extend earlier findings (Guy & Edens, 2003) suggesting that there are gender differences in the impact of expert testimony regarding psychopathy. A sample of 599 undergraduates reviewed case facts regarding a hypothetical Sexually Violent Predator trial in which the type of risk assessment testimony provided (clinical opinion, actuarial scale, psychopathy evaluation) and the age of the victims (adult versus child) were manipulated. Consistent with prior research, despite overall high rates of support for commitment in the adult victim condition, men were less prone than women to support civil commitment when the defendant was described as "a psychopath" (62.5 versus 86.5%). No such gender differences were noted in the clinical opinion or actuarial conditions. When the victims were identified as children, type of testimony had no impact because support for commitment was almost unilateral. Finally, ratings of how psychopathic the defendant was perceived to be (regardless of the testimony provided) were significantly associated with support for commitment across most conditions.     

Gender differences in perceptions and consequences of an eating binge

Little systematic research has examined the factors that contribute to perceptions of an eating binge. This study showed videotapes of a single male, single female, or three females eating a variable number of doughnuts at different rates to male and female undergraduate subjects. Subjects were asked to label their own eating as a binge or not, had they eaten like the person on the videotape, and how they would feel afterward. The majority of female subject labeled their own eating as a binge under all conditions, and endorsed negative emotional outcomes. Males required a large number of doughnuts, or rapid consumption before the majority labeled it a binge, and experienced mostly gastrointestinal outcomes. Many noneating disordered women in our culture may be labeling much of their eating as a binge and experience dysphoria afterward.     

Gender differences in the relationships between bullying at school and unhealthy eating and shape‐related attitudes and behaviours

Background. Previous research has found links between being a victim of bullying and reporting more unhealthy eating behaviours and cognitions, particularly in girls. However, little is known about the factors that might mediate these relationships. Aim. The present study compared the relationships between bullying, emotional adjustment, restrained eating, and body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls. Sample/method. Self‐report data were collected from a sample of 11‐ to 14‐year‐olds (N= 376) on experiences of bullying, emotional symptoms, and unhealthy eating and shape‐related attitudes and behaviours. Results. Bullying, emotional symptoms, restrained eating, and body dissatisfaction were all correlated. Emotional symptoms were found to significantly mediate the relationships between verbal bullying with body dissatisfaction in girls but not in boys. Conclusions. Findings suggest that the experience of being verbally bullied places adolescent girls at risk of developing emotional problems which can then lead to body dissatisfaction. Longitudinal research is necessary to disentangle these pathways in more detail to facilitate the development of informed interventions to support children who are being bullied.