A Functional Analysis of Psychological Terms Redux

In his seminal paper, “An Operational Analysis of Psychological Terms,” Skinner (1945) offered the revolutionary suggestion that, rather than endlessly debating the meanings of psychological terms, psychologists should analyze the variables that control their occurrence as verbal behavior. Skinner''s suggestion reflected the essence of his 1957 book, Verbal Behavior, wherein he argued that the behaviors of which language is composed (i.e., speaking and listening) are controlled by variables found in the social environment (which he called the verbal community), and that analyzing those variables would lead to an understanding of the behaviors. Although Skinner formally introduced his radical approach to language in 1945, it has yet to be fully realized. The result is that psychologists, including behavior analysts, still debate the definitions of terms. In the present paper, I review Skinner''s functional approach to language and describe ways in which behavior analysts have already applied it to traditional psychological terms. I conclude by looking at other current terms in behavior analysis that engender some confusion and encourage behavior analysts to apply a functional analytic approach to their own verbal behavior.     

Evasion, private events, and pragmatism: A Reply to Moore's response to my review of Conceptual Foundations of Radical Behaviorism

Moore's screed in response to my review of his book uses several rhetorical tricks to counter criticism without actually addressing it: he tries to preempt the transparency of his own orthodoxy by groundlessly accusing me of orthodoxy; he caricatures my criticisms to make them appear obviously wrong; he professes lack of understanding so as to dodge having to attempt a genuine response; and he engages in pejorative labeling to dismiss the criticisms without analysis. From a scientific and pragmatic point of view, private events are a mistake, precisely because they are private. They cannot serve as independent variables, as Moore suggests, because they cannot be measured; “private independent variable” is a contradiction in terms. When we carefully examine locutions like “observe” and “report on,” we discover that they entail only public verbal and nonverbal behavior, not objects and not private events as objects. A person in pain is not reporting on anything, is engaging in public verbal and nonverbal pain‐behavior, and an infant or a dog may be considered to be in pain. The public behavior is all that matters, because determining whether a person is really in pain privately is impossible. The same is true of any private event, and the control of the public behavior on which the verbal community comments lies in the public environment. We cannot have two sets of principles, one for verbal behavior and one for nonverbal behavior or one for humans and one for other animals.     

An Invitation to Behavior Analysts: Review of in Search of Memory: The Emergence of A New Science of Mind by Eric R. Kandel

This fascinating autobiography and multifaceted case history in neuroscience research is accessible to laymen and potentially instructive to working scientists. Kandel takes the reader through his thought processes as he describes experiments that led to some of the past decades'' major neuroscience discoveries (some highlights of which are summarized in the review''s Appendix), and eventually to his Nobel Prize. The review analyzes some of the terminological and conceptual issues that have often inhibited communication between behavior analysts and neuroscientists, with special attention to some of Bennett and Hacker''s admonitions viewed from the perspective of language evolution and linguistics. The review then discusses opportunities for behavior analysts to collaborate with neuroscientists by applying behavioral contingency analysis to help specify the independent variables of neuroscience experiments described by Kandel. Finally, it examines Kandel''s provocative heuristics for locating important research problems, and the lessons that can be gleaned from the book regarding the attributes of potentially great achievers.     

Whether, when, and why Skinner published on biological participation in behavior

This paper brings some data to bear on the criticisms, claims, and arguments that Skinner (a) denied or dismissed biological participation in behavior, (b) addressed it only late in his career or more often later than earlier, or (c) addressed it only because of the overwhelming evidence for it or the criticisms that he had overlooked it. For this, we coded Skinner's every primary-source publication for three content categories (i.e., genetics, physiology, and evolution) and for the extent to which he addressed them (i.e., in publication titles, substantively, or in passing). Our findings are that Skinner addressed biological participation in over a third of his publications throughout his career, albeit more often later than earlier. The latter, however, is accounted for by an increase in his base rate of publication and in general conditions and specific events in his career, psychology, and science. The discussion addresses our research methods; the reasons for and refutations of the criticisms, claims, and arguments; and their sources.     

The Predictive Stability of Ability Requirements for Task Performance: A Critical Renalysis

The traditional tenet of the stability of measured ability requirements for task performance has been challenged by a changing-abilities-requirements view. This view, based largely on interpretations of Fleishman's research, holds that systematic changes in the abilities contributing to performance occur relative to a variety of criterion tasks, as practice on those tasks continues. Previous criticisms of Fleishman's experimental-factor analytic approach are summarized and extended in this article. A reanalysis of %4 pairs of rs reported in Fleishman's studies and in a replication study by Hinrichs showed that the incidence of significant change in rs was within the range of chance expectation. Factor analytic studies by Fleishman and others that do not support the changing-abilities-requirements view are reviewed. The practical implications of Fleishman's research are discussed. It is argued that the data cited in support of the changing-abilities-requirements view require examination of external validity beyond laboratory practice tasks. Judgment on the issue of the stability of ability requirements should be withheld until more appropriate studies are conducted.     

Plato's Theory of Aging

Plato's writings express a positive attitude toward elderly people. But do his writings also show a serious theoretical interest in issues of aging? We approach this question by comparing what Plato says about aging to major theoretical issues in gerontology. We argue that many of Plato's subtler observations of the behavior of elderly people and many of his ideas about aging anticipate specific research and theoretical advances in contemporary gerontology. We compare passages in Plato's works to the debate between activity and disengagement theories, the concepts of continuity and gerotranscendence, Robert Butler's discovery of “the life review,” and recent theories of old age wisdom. Plato's anticipation of these ideas and issues related to them suggests that his writings may contain still other major insights into aging which are not yet articulated in gerontology. We suggest three possibilities.     

On the Very Idea of Denying the Existence of Radically Different Conceptual Schemes

This paper concentrates on three connected features of Taylor's argument. I begin by considering his historical sections on the formation of the modern identity, raising some doubts about the focus of his discussion and offering some specific criticisms in the case of Locke and Rousseau. Next I examine Taylor's list of the moral imperatives allegedly felt with particular force in the contemporary world. I question the extent to which the values listed by Taylor are genuinely shared, and point to a range of criticisms put forward by conservatives, Marxists, feminists, and other opponents of liberalism, all of whose doubts Taylor appears to underestimate. Finally, I address Taylor's underlying claim that a religious dimension is indispensable if our highest human potentialities are to be realized, and conclude with a critique of his theistic arguments.     

Parental perceptions of supplemental interventions received by young children with autism in intensive behavior analytic treatment

Parents of children with autism in applied behavior analytic treatment were surveyed on their use and perceptions of supplemental treatments. In study 1, respondents (N=121) reported enrolling their children in an average of seven supplemental interventions, most commonly non‐behavior‐analytic speech therapies (85%), megavitamins (61%), Sensory Integration Therapy (56%), and elimination diets (50%). In study 2, parents (N=24) were interviewed about these four interventions and typically reported little or no benefit. Factors that parents cited as influencing their decision to obtain supplemental interventions for their children varied substantially, depending on the individual intervention. Because of the extensive use of unvalidated interventions that parents deemed unhelpful, it seems important to reduce children's participation in such interventions. However, because of the diverse influences on parents' decisions to obtain the interventions, a multifaceted strategy may be needed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Kant and the Problem of Idealism: On the Significance of the Göttingen Review

This essay examines the impact of the Göttingen review on Kant. Taking up each of the charges laid down in this first, critical review of the Critique of Pure Reason, I will argue that these criticisms stem largely from Kant's account in his discussion of the Paralogisms, before going on to defend Kant from the claim that he altered his stance on realism—in reaction to the review—as the only hope for distinguishing transcendental idealism from the immaterialism of George Berkeley.     

How not to be a metaethical naturalist –Jesse Prinz on the emotional construction of morals

This paper is an analysis of the performance of one reading of Charles Taylor's general criticisms of naturalist accounts of morality (excluding the issue of moral realism) when measured against a specific naturalist account, in this case J.L. Mackie's moral theory. It is argued that Taylor's criticisms, read in this way, fail to find purchase, despite his singling out of Mackie's theory as a prime example of a theory that exhibits the flaws Taylor believes are inherent in this kind of approach to moral theory. This points the supporter of Taylor's position towards an alternative reading of his challenge to naturalist accounts of morality.     

Quine against Lewis (and Carnap) on Truth by Convention

Many commentators now view Quine's ‘Truth by Convention’ as a flawed criticism of Carnap. Gary Ebbs argued recently that Quine never intended Carnap as his target. Quine's criticisms were part of his attempt to work out his own scientific naturalism. I agree that Carnap was not Quine's target but object that Quine's criticisms were wholly internal to his own philosophy. Instead, I argue that C.I. Lewis held the kind of truth‐by‐convention thesis that Quine rejects. This, however, leaves Carnap out of the picture. I then show how Quine came to see the earlier criticisms as also having force against Carnap.     

Personality Assessment and Children: A Critical Appraisal and Emerging Trends

An analysis of the criticisms of children's personality assessment and a discussion of emerging trends are offered in this review. A distinction is made between the assessment of personal and social functioning, implicit in all educational decisions, and the use of personality tests and techniques. It is noted that personality research has not been directly concerned with the professional practice issues inherent in children's personality assessment. Finally, guidelines for personality assessment are offered.     

Addressing Criticisms of Global Religion Research: A Consumption‐Based Exploration of Status and Materialism,Sustainability, and Volunteering Behavior

Religion is a key source of core values and one of the most deeply psychological experiences; however, prior research has often inadequately measured religion's influence on consumption behaviors. Our research addresses criticisms of prior research by (1) reducing cultural bias by conducting research within one country, (2) examining both religious affiliation and religiosity, (3) exploring numerous consumption behaviors (social status desire, materialism views, sustainable behaviors, environmental views, and volunteering behavior) in a within‐subjects design, and (4) testing religion's effect on consumption behavior with over 1,000 participants. Findings provide insight for consumer well‐being. Specifically, consumers high in external religiosity are more materialistic, more sustainable, and more likely to volunteer than consumers low in external religiosity. Consumers high in internal religiosity are also more likely to be sustainable and hold pro‐environmental views. In addition, Buddhists and Hindus are less likely to hold pro‐environmental views than Christians. Buddhists are more materialistic than Christians, and Hindus are less desiring of social status than Christians. In addressing the criticisms of prior research in the context of consumption, our research builds on values‐based and social‐based theories.     

Murray Sidman's contributions to clinical behavior analysis

Murray Sidman was not himself a clinician nor directly involved in clinical research. Nevertheless, his experimental and conceptual work, especially in the area of stimulus equivalence, profoundly influenced the development of clinical behavior analysis. Before his work on stimulus equivalence, clinicians with a behavior analytic world view working with verbally sophisticated humans, were making some progress in understanding clinical phenomena and in developing innovative therapies. However, given the obvious and predominant role of verbal processes in both the development and treatment of clinical problems, that progress was constrained by the existing behavior analytic account of verbal behavior. Most fundamentally, it was hard to understand how, in the apparent absence of direct training, verbal events, even novel verbal events, acquire the functions of the nonverbal events that they stand for or represent. Sidman's work on stimulus equivalence, especially the transfer (transformation) of functions, offered an answer and thereby provided a conceptual framework of symbolic behavior around which clinical behavior analysis could cohere and develop.     

信札中的微观心理学历史:黄翼形重错觉研究报告的曲折境遇

本文透过微观历史的视角,以黄翼与周先庚、吴有训等人的10余封通信为素材,还原了黄翼两篇形重错觉研究报告的评审与发表过程,揭示出黄翼与审稿人汪敬熙、主编吴有训、好友周先庚以及导师格塞尔之间的冲突、协商和合作的复杂学术互动。这些信札作为私人交流的媒介,记录了当时心理学知识生产中局部的、互动的、存在于特定关系之中的思想、计划和动机。信札中的对话涉及到当时心理学学术成果评审的几方面核心问题:评审标准和流程、写作语言规范、学术权威、同行举荐、创新性认可、文献引用等诸多问题。本文进一步以科学知识社会学的视角对这些问题进行分析,解构学术"象牙塔"的传统形象,以此揭示和反思心理学知识生产的内在过程。     

“Sport,Habermas, and the Moral Sphere: A Response to Lopez Frias”

I argue that several recent criticisms Lopez Frias has made against my conventionalist version of broad internalism fail to hit their mark. I further argue that the author's use of Habermas's account of discourse ethics to make his criticisms also misfires because Habermas expressly warned against using his account to resolve normative conflicts that arise from the often conflicting ways different communities order their ethical lives, to include their athletic lives. My main aim in responding to Lopez Frias was to bring critical attention to the normative difficulties that result when we cannot agree on how sport should be done because we cannot agree on what is/are the purpose(s) of sport.     

Evidence for Cognitive Load Theory

Dixon (1991) and Goldman (1991) have provided thoughtful commentaries on Chandler and Sweller (1991). The general issue they raise concerns the scientific procedures we should use when conducting research in cognition and instruction. It is an issue of great importance, and we welcome the opportunity provided by their criticisms to discuss the techniques we use. To clarify the findings based on cognitive load theory, we begin by indicating the essential characteristics of a theory concerned with cognition and instruction, followed by a brief history of cognitive load theory to make clear that it has these characteristics. These statements will then be used to address specific comments made by Goldman and Dixon.     

Joseph V. Brady: Synthesis Reunites What Analysis Has Divided

Joseph V. Brady (1922–2011) created behavior-analytic neuroscience and the analytic framework for understanding how the external and internal neurobiological environments and mechanisms interact. Brady''s approach offered synthesis as well as analysis. He embraced Findley''s approach to constructing multioperant behavioral repertoires that found their way into designing environments for astronauts as well as studying drug effects on human social behavior in microenvironments. Brady created translational neurobehavioral science before such a concept existed. One of his most lasting contributions was developing a framework for ethical decision making to protect the rights of the people who participate in scientific research.     

Caregiver involvement in applied behavior-analytic research: A scoping review and discussion

We conducted a scoping review to characterize the role of caregiver involvement in behavior-analytic research. We reviewed eight behavioral-learning journals from 2011–2022 for works that included children or caregivers as participants and characterized caregiver involvement as passive (implications for caregivers, input, social validity) and active (implementation, caregiver behavior, training, caregiver-collected data). The review identified 228 studies, and almost all (96.1%; n = 219) involved caregivers in some capacity; 94.3% (n = 215) had passive involvement (26.8% had only passive involvement; n = 61), 69.3% (n = 158) had active involvement (1.8% had only active involvement; n = 4), and 3.9% (n = 9) had neither passive nor active involvement. Involvement generally increased over publication years. The most common types of involvement were implications for caregivers, implementation, and input; caregiver-collected data were rare. We propose considerations when engaging caregivers in research and suggest new avenues of inquiry related to caregivers' treatment objectives and social validity, treatment implementers, and caregiver-collected data.