Utility of extinction-induced response variability for the selection of mands

Functional communication training (FCT; Carr & Durand, 1985) is a commonly used differential reinforcement procedure for replacing problem behavior with socially acceptable alternative responses. Most studies in the FCT literature consist of demonstrations of the maintenance of responding when various treatment components (e.g., extinction, punishment) are present and absent (e.g., Fisher et al., 1993; Wacker et al., 1990). Relatively little research on FCT has (a) evaluated the conditions under which alternative responses are acquired or (b) described procedures with technological precision. Thus, additional research on a cogent technology for response acquisition appears to be warranted. In the current study, we evaluated the efficacy of exposing problem behavior to extinction for inducing response variability as a tool for selecting an alternative response during FCT. Once participants engaged in appropriate alternative responses, the reinforcer identified in the functional analysis as maintaining problem behavior was delivered contingent on the alternative behavior. Results showed that exposing problem behavior to extinction was a useful method for producing alternative behaviors during FCT.     

Prevalence of the extinction burst and its attenuation during treatment

Although extinction has been an effective treatment for a variety of behavior disorders, its use may be associated with several adverse side effects, the most common being an initial increase in the frequency of the target response, called an "extinction burst." We attempted to determine the prevalence of the extinction burst in applied research and its possible attenuation with other operant procedures. An analysis of 113 sets of extinction data indicated that bursting may not be as common as previously assumed (it occurred in 24% of the cases) and may be less likely when extinction is implemented with alternative procedures rather than as the sole intervention (bursting was evident in 12% of the former cases and 36% of the latter).     

Early extinction effects following intermittent reinforcement: Little evidence of extinction bursts

The occurrence of extinction bursts—transient increases in response rate in excess of those observed in baseline during the period immediately following discontinuation of reinforcement of a response—was examined. In Experiment 1, key pecking of pigeons was reinforced according to a multiple schedule in which a variable-ratio schedule alternated with an interval schedule in which the reinforcers were yoked to the preceding variable-ratio component. In Experiments 2 and 3, rats were screened such that the lever-press response rates of different rats maintained by variable-interval schedules were either relatively high or relatively low. Following these baseline conditions, in Experiments 1 and 2 responding was extinguished by eliminating the food reinforcer and in Experiment 3 by removing the response–reinforcer dependency. Responses immediately following extinction implementation were examined. Response increases relative to baseline during the first 20 min of a 324.75-min extinction session (Experiment 1) or during the first 30-min extinction session (Experiments 2 and 3) were rare and unsystematic. The results (a) reinforce earlier meta-analyses concluding that extinction bursts may be a less ubiquitous early effect of extinction than has been suggested and (b) invite further experimentation to establish their generality as a function of preceding reinforcement conditions.     

Behavior changes during repeated eight-day extinctions

Pigeons were given repeated two-day conditionings alternating with eight-day extinctions using a trial procedure. One group had different key colors during each of the first five conditioning-extinction pairs; another group had the same key color throughout. Total extinction responses of both groups were quite constant over successive extinctions. This finding differs from the rapid declines found in most previous studies with bar-press and key-peck responses. The difference probably was due to our longer extinctions, because responses early in each extinction did decrease. However, that decrease was neutralized by increases in responses late in each extinction. The two opposite changes indicate the influence of two different factors during repeated extinctions, with neither factor having much stimulus specificity. The reduction of early responses may result from feeding changes confounded with extinction. The increase in later extinction responses may result from a decrease in the effect of unreinforced responses after their repeated occurrence.     

Early-extinction effects on a force response of humans

Humans were used to investigate changes in response force occurring soon after reinforcement was eliminated. In Experiment 1, in a 300-s baseline phase, 10 participants received a point for holding down a pressure sensor set to operate at a force equal to 85% of the maximum force the participants exerted during a pretest. Following this, during a 600-s extinction phase, criterion responses had no consequence. In Experiment 2, 6 participants worked on the same task, but (a) points were exchangeable for money and (b) after extinction, the reinforcement baseline phase was reinstated. In Experiment 3, 6 participants completed the same task as in Experiment 2, but the required minimum force was 60% of the maximum force exerted during the pretest. In each experiment, increases in response force relative to the mean and peak force exerted during the last 100 s of baseline were observed in most participants when force responses were aggregated into short sample intervals, but less so with longer ones. The increases, however, were not systematic across or within participants, questioning the generality of and the criteria for demonstrating an extinction burst.     

An extinction-induced increase in an aggressive response with humans

Nine subjects, 14 to 18 yr old, pulled a knob on a schedule of monetary reinforcement. Concurrently, they escaped or avoided periodic presentations of a tone by pressing a button that required 1.5 lb (6.67 N) of force or by punching a padded cushion that required 20 lb (88.96 N) of force. The punching response was designated as an aggressive response because the force of this response together with its topography was comparable to responses of humans that deface objects and produce escape or counter aggression from other humans. It was found that button pressing was the preferred concurrent avoidance response and there were few punches. However, when the monetary reinforcer was discontinued (extinction) punching increased for seven of the nine subjects, but there was no consistent change in the rate of button pressing. When the punching response was replaced by another non-preferred but non-aggressive response, neither this response nor button pressing increased during extinction. Hence, the increase in punching during extinction cannot be attributed solely to the fact that it was a concurrent response or a non-preferred response.     

An experimental analysis of memory processing

Rhesus monkeys were trained and tested in visual and auditory list-memory tasks with sequences of four travel pictures or four natural/environmental sounds followed by single test items. Acquisitions of the visual list-memory task are presented. Visual recency (last item) memory diminished with retention delay, and primacy (first item) memory strengthened. Capuchin monkeys, pigeons, and humans showed similar visual-memory changes. Rhesus learned an auditory memory task and showed octave generalization for some lists of notes--tonal, but not atonal, musical passages. In contrast with visual list memory, auditory primacy memory diminished with delay and auditory recency memory strengthened. Manipulations of interitem intervals, list length, and item presentation frequency revealed proactive and retroactive inhibition among items of individual auditory lists. Repeating visual items from prior lists produced interference (on nonmatching tests) revealing how far back memory extended. The possibility of using the interference function to separate familiarity vs. recollective memory processing is discussed.     

Acute and chronic effects of cocaine on extinction-induced aggression.

Pigeons worked individually in a chamber containing a response key and a mirror. Pecking on the key was controlled by a multiple schedule in which a brief period of continuous food reinforcement alternated with a 5-minute period of extinction. Under baseline conditions, aggressive behavior (responding on the mirror) occurred at the onset of each extinction period. In Experiment I (acute drug administration), the aggressive behavior was decreased by doses of cocaine that had little or no effect on key pecking. Such food-reinforced responding was disrupted, however, by higher doses of cocaine. An attempt to mimic the disruptive drugs effects by a prefeeding manipulation was unsuccessful. In Experiment II (chronic drug administration), some tolerance developed to the disruptive effects of cocaine on the food-reinforced responding, except at the highest dose tested. There was no clear-cut indication of tolerance to the initial effect of cocaine on the aggressive behavior at any dose.     

Baseline response rates affect resistance to change

The effect of response rates on resistance to change, measured as resistance to extinction, was examined in two experiments. In Experiment 1, responding in transition from a variable‐ratio schedule and its yoked‐interval counterpart to extinction was compared with pigeons. Following training on a multiple variable‐ratio yoked‐interval schedule of reinforcement, in which response rates were higher in the former component, reinforcement was removed from both components during a single extended extinction session. Resistance to extinction in the yoked‐interval component was always either greater or equal to that in the variable‐ratio component. In Experiment 2, resistance to extinction was compared for two groups of rats that exhibited either high or low response rates when maintained on identical variable‐interval schedules. Resistance to extinction was greater for the lower‐response‐rate group. These results suggest that baseline response rate can contribute to resistance to change. Such effects, however, can only be revealed when baseline response rate and reinforcement rate are disentangled (Experiments 1 and 2) from the more usual circumstance where the two covary. Furthermore, they are more cleanly revealed when the programmed contingencies controlling high and low response rates are identical, as in Experiment 2.     

An experimental analysis of negative reinforcement contingencies for adult-delivered reprimands

Seven adults participated in simulated teaching sessions with an experimenter who role played as a student with developmental disabilities. The experimenter engaged in problem behavior and either (a) terminated problem behavior contingent on participant reprimands (negative reinforcement) or (b) did not terminate problem behavior contingent on reprimands (extinction). Results suggested that reprimands were sensitive to negative reinforcement in the form of the immediate cessation of problem behavior. These preliminary findings support role play as a potentially viable laboratory model for analyzing behaviors of typical adults.     

An experimental analysis of the effects of d-amphetamine and cocaine on the acquisition and performance of response chains in monkeys.

In one component of a multiple schedule of food presentation, monkeys acquired a different four-response chain each session by responding sequentially on three keys in the presence of four geometric forms (learning). In the other component, the four-response chain was the same each session (performance). Both d-amphetamine and cocaine, at the higher doses, disrupted the behavior in the learning component; the overall response rate decreased, the overall accuracy was impaired (i.e., percent errors increased), and there was less within-session error reduction. The performance component was generally less sensitive than the learning component to the disruptive effects of both drugs on rate and accuracy. After pre-feeding or during an extended session, the response rate decreased in both components, but accuracy was generally unaffected. When the four discriminative stimuli in both components were removed, the behavior was disrupted to a greater extent in the performance component. The disruptive effects of both drugs on behavior in the learning component were attenuated when the drugs were administered during the session after the response chain had been acquired. It was concluded that the greater sensitivity of the learning component to disruptive drug effects is related to the relatively weak stimulus control and/or the lower rate of reinforcement associated with that component.     

What is an extinction burst?: A case study in the analysis of transitional behavior

Among the tactics of experimental science discussed by Sidman (1960) were those used to study transitional behavior. Drawing from his insights, this review considers an often cited but infrequently analyzed aspect of the transition from reinforcement to extinction: the extinction burst. In particular, the review seeks to answer the question posed in its title. The generic definition of an extinction burst as an increase in response rate following the onset of extinction is found to be wanting, raising more questions than it answers. Because questions of definition in science usually come down to those of measurement, the answer to the title's question is suggested to be found in how behavior prior to extinction is maintained and measured, when and how extinction is introduced, and where in time and how behavior early in extinction is measured. This analysis suggests that a single, uniform, and precise definition of the extinction burst is misguided. Examining how each of these facets contributes to what has been described generically as the extinction burst is a small, but important, part of Sidman's methodological legacy to the experimental analysis of behavior.     

Descriptive characteristics of extinction bursts: A record review

Procedural extinction is sometimes associated with a temporary increase in responding known as an extinction burst. Extinction bursts present unique challenges in the context of treating behavior targeted for reduction. The present study updates the prevalence of extinction bursts using a clinical sample (N = 108) receiving treatment for targeted behavior. The prevalence of extinction bursts in our sample (24%) was consistent with that in prior literature. The extinction-burst magnitude decreased across sessions after extinction was contacted during treatment, but this sample did not demonstrate decreased persistence or magnitude of extinction bursts across successive transitions from baseline to treatment. We also examined the prevalence and magnitude of extinction bursts based on the function and topography of targeted behavior and treatment components and found no consistent relation among these variables. These findings should lead clinicians to prepare for transient extinction bursts when implementing extinction-based treatment for challenging behavior.     

An analysis of coordinated responding of pigeons

Experimental analyses of coordinated responding (i.e., cooperation) have been derived from a procedure described by Skinner (1962) in which reinforcers were delivered to a pair of subjects (a dyad) if both responded within a short interval, thus satisfying a coordination contingency. Although it has been suggested that this contingency enhances rates of temporally coordinated responding, limitations of past experiments have raised questions concerning this conclusion. The present experiments addressed some of these limitations by holding the schedule of reinforcement (Experiment 1: fixed ratio 1; Experiment 2; variable interval 20 s) constant across phases and between dyad members and by varying, in different conditions, the number of response keys (one to three) across which coordination could occur. Greater percentages of coordinated responding occurred under the coordinated-reinforcement phases than under independent-reinforcement phases in most conditions. The one exception during the one-key condition of Experiment 1 appeared to be a consequence of variability introduced by the independent-reinforcement phase procedure. Furthermore, coordination percentages decreased with increasing response options under both schedules. These results confirm and extend the finding that coordination contingencies control higher rates of temporally coordinated responding than independent-reinforcement contingencies do.     

Examining extinction bursts in the treatment of pediatric food refusal

Escape extinction has been shown to be highly effective in the treatment of food refusal; however, unpleasant side effects such as extinction bursts may accompany extinction procedures. Bursting has been reported to occur in 24% to 39% of all cases for which extinction was used as a component during treatment of problem behavior. Although commonly used in treatments, the occurrence of extinction bursts in the treatment of pediatric food refusal has not been studied. This study measured the frequency of bursting in 10 children for whom escape extinction was used to treat food refusal. Results showed that extinction bursts were observed in 30% of the children included in the study, although they were relatively brief and resolved quickly. Considerations for using escape extinction in interventions will be discussed.     

An experimental demonstration of AAB renewal in children with autism spectrum disorder

Operant renewal is a return of extinguished behavior due to changes in contextual stimuli that control the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a response. Well‐established in classical conditioning and operant research, renewal presents itself in three forms—ABA, ABC, and AAB—and poses threats to treatment maintenance where extinction procedures are utilized. As AAB renewal may be less likely to occur than ABA or ABC renewal, the current study sought to determine if AAB renewal would occur with three participants with Autism Spectrum Disorder who were taught a simple lever pull response. Results showed that lever pulls increased for two of three participants when we introduced novel stimuli (i.e., a light and a buzzer) to alter the contextual environment after extinction. These findings suggest that AAB renewal may account for some instances of response recovery after extinction and that the procedure of this study may be beneficial to the further study of renewal and the variables that affect its occurrence within a translational model.     

Repeated acquisition of conditional discriminations

A new technique was developed to study the repeated acquisition of conditional discriminations. Using a discrete trial procedure, pigeons were required to learn during each session a different two-member chain of conditional discriminations. Key color and geometric forms were used as stimuli. After the pigeons had reached a steady state of relearning (40 to 60 sessions), the technique was used to investigate variables that have previously been shown to affect the repeated acquisition of response sequences. Various (0 to 90 seconds) durations of timeout for errors were investigated in Experiment I. The stimulus change associated with a timeout, rather than its duration, was found to be the critical variable in acquisition of the discrimination. Extended training on a single chain was found to reduce total errors across sessions in Experiment II. Extended training (three sessions) did not, however, change the pattern of within-session error reduction. In some cases, extended training facilitated acquisition of a partially reversed discrimination. In Experiment III, color rather than chain position was found to control behavior, for three of the four birds, as the second stimulus dimension in the conditional situation. The results of these experiments replicate and extend previous findings concerning some of the variables that affect the repeated acquisition of response sequences.     

Dissecting the conditioned pecking response: an integrated system for the analysis of pecking response parameters.

The conventional pecking response key, although an excellent transducer of response rate, can provide minimal information on the topography, coordination, or localization of conditioned pecking. We describe the hardware and software components of a system that, in addition to recording response rates, permits simultaneous "on-line" monitoring of head acceleration, jaw movement, terminal peck location, and duration of pecking response. Head movements are monitored with a miniature accelerometer, jaw movements with a magnetosensitive transducer, and peck location with modified touch screen technology. Initial experiments with the system suggest that it will be useful in studies of response differentiation, acquisition and maintenance of complex discriminations, and interaction of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli in the control of pecking response probability and response topography.     

An assessment of the role of handling cues in "spontaneous recovery" after extinction

Three experiments examined the assertion that presession handling cues that accompany training with reinforcement might account for spontaneous recovery when they reoccur following extinction. In Experiment 1, after extensive training on a variable-interval schedule, key pecking in pigeons was extinguished following either normal or distinctively different handling and transportational cues. Those cues resulted in enhanced spontaneous recovery 24 hr later when normal cues were reinstated. In Experiment 2, however, subjects tested following the normal handling cues showed no more spontaneous recovery than did subjects that spent the entire extinction-test interval in the experimental chambers and thus were tested without handling cues altogether. In Experiment 3, a group whose test for recovery began 10 min after being placed in the chambers yielded as much spontaneous recovery as did a group tested normally. Furthermore, a group for which extinction began at mid-session and for which handling therefore could not be a discriminative cue for extinction showed no more spontaneous recovery than did the other two groups. Handling cues thus contributed to spontaneous recovery only after explicit discrimination training, as provided in Experiment 1.     

Effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine on the repeated acquisition and performance of conditional discriminations.

The acute and chronic effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine on food-reinforced behavior were investigated in pigeons responding on a two-component multiple schedule. In one component, the behavioral task consisted of the same chain of conditional discriminations each session (performance). In the other component, the chain of conditional discriminations was changed from session to session (learning). In comparison to control sessions, both acute cocaine and d-amphetamine increased errors in each component of the multiple schedule. Responding in the learning component, however, was generally disrupted at lower doses than those that affected responding in the performance component. At high doses, both drugs produced pauses in responding in each component in three of the four subjects. Pausing engendered by d-amphetamine was approximately twice as long as that under cocaine. Upon chronic administration, both the pausing and error-increasing effects of each drug diminished. Drug-induced changes in timeout responding, however, did not decrease during chronic administration. Redeterminations of the d-amphetamine dose-effect curves following chronic cocaine administration suggested the existence of cross-tolerance between cocaine and d-amphetamine. Both the acute and chronic data are consistent with the view that conditions of stimulus control may modulate the behavioral effects of drugs.