An experimental investigation of physical education teachers’ and coaches’ reactions to weight-based victimization in youth

Objectives

Overweight youth are frequent targets of weight-based victimization during Physical Education (PE) and sports. In addition, previous research indicates that teachers’ perceptions and expectations may influence their likelihood of intervening during victimization, and physical educators may endorse biased perceptions and expectations of overweight youth. Despite this evidence, no research has examined how physical educators respond to weight-based victimization of their students. Thus, the current study examined PE teachers’ and coaches’ responses to different types of victimization involving average weight and overweight students.

Design

This study utilized an experimental design that assessed participants’ reactions to situations of weight-related victimization using hypothetical scenarios accompanied by photographs of youth.

Methods

PE teachers and sport coaches (N = 162) were randomly presented with a scenario and follow-up questions about an average weight or an overweight student. Each participant completed two conditions: one with a male target, and one with a female target.

Results

Participants were more likely to take action when overweight female students were victims of bullying, specifically in situations of verbal and relational victimization. Male participants were less likely to respond to victimization than female participants.

Conclusions

Findings suggest the importance of increasing awareness about weight-based victimization and its consequences, especially among male physical educators. Implications for the psychological, social, and physical development of overweight youth are discussed.     

Assessment of tripartite efficacy beliefs within school-based physical education: Instrument development and reliability and validity evidence

Objectives

In educational contexts, Lent and Lopez (2002) proposed that students develop a tripartite network of efficacy beliefs, comprising their confidence in their own capabilities (i.e., self-efficacy), their confidence in their teacher’s ability (i.e., other-efficacy), and their estimation of their teacher’s confidence in their ability (i.e., relation-inferred self-efficacy). In spite of the potential for school-based physical education (PE) to stimulate leisure-time activity patterns among adolescents, it is noteworthy that this framework has yet to be explored in school PE contexts.

Design and methods

In Phase 1, we recruited 62 Australian high school students (aged 11-13) in order to develop instruments designed to assess self-efficacy, other-efficacy, and relation-inferred self-efficacy within PE settings. In Phases 2 and 3, we sought to provide evidence for measurement reliability, validity, and invariance with cross-sectional and prospective data derived from Australian (N = 602, M_age = 13.54, SD = .76) as well as Singaporean (N = 606; M_age = 14.10, SD = 1.01) students.

Results

Results revealed (a) support for the factorial validity of these measures in both locations, (b) evidence of gender-related and cross-national measurement invariance, (c) positive inter-relationships between students’ tripartite efficacy perceptions that were consistent with theory, and (d) positive correlations with key in-class (e.g., effort, enjoyment) and leisure-time (e.g., physical activity levels) outcomes.

Conclusions

Taken together, the results provide preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of measures derived from these tripartite efficacy instruments, and support their use in future research designed to examine PE engagement.     

Examining the relationship between family context and children’s physical activity beliefs: The role of parenting style

Objectives

Previous research studies examining parental influences on children’s physical activity (PA) have focused primarily on parents’ own PA behavior, as well as their PA-related beliefs and socially supportive behaviors. The present study, although aligned with this mainstream parental influence research, was grounded in a broader child development perspective to examine the influence of parenting style on children’s PA beliefs and quality of parent-child communication.

Method

Self-report questionnaires were administered to 173 children ranging in age from 9 to 12 years to assess their perceptions of parenting style, parent-child communication patterns, as well as their own perceptions of fitness competence, value, and goal orientation.

Results

Children’s constellation of beliefs and attitudes regarding PA as well as their perceptions of the parent-child communication process did vary as a function of the type of parenting style they perceived their parents to use. High challenge parenting style was linked to higher perceived fitness competence and value on the part of the children. High support parenting style was linked to more positive perceived parent-child communication patterns.

Conclusion

Parenting style may be a critical underlying family process variable that impacts children’s development of a positive constellation of beliefs about PA. Future work is needed to link parenting style and children’s PA beliefs to their PA behavior.     

Effects of a cognitive specific imagery intervention on the soccer skill performance of young athletes: Age group comparisons

Objectives

The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of a cognitive specific (CS) imagery intervention on the soccer skill performance of young athletes aged 7-14 years and determine if performance varied with age.

Design

Participants were 143 soccer athletes belonging to 16 different teams. Teams were randomly assigned to either a cognitive specific (CS) or motivational general-arousal imagery intervention.

Methods

Athletes were administered the SIQ-C and tested on the soccer skill to determine baseline performance. Following their imagery intervention, athletes were tested on the same soccer skill, and completed the SIQ-C a second time.

Results

The results indicated that only the younger athletes (7-10 years) receiving CS imagery performed faster following their intervention. Moreover, only the 7-8 year old athletes in the CS imagery condition significantly increased their use of CS imagery over time.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that young athletes who use CS imagery will benefit from a CS imagery intervention, thus implying that mental skills training should begin at a young age if athletes are to maximize the benefits of such training.     

Views on aging and emotional benefits of physical activity: Effects of an exercise intervention in older women

Objectives

This intervention study evaluated the effects of exercise in old age on views on one’s own aging and on direct approach motivation for physical activity. It further examined the mechanism between these variables.

Design

Two hundred forty-seven healthy women aged 70−93 years were randomized to an exercise course (n = 86), an active (n = 85), or a passive control group (n = 76) for a 6-month participation in Berlin, Germany. Activity interventions (3 × 1.5 h/wk) were conducted using standardized manuals.

Method

Group differences in changes of views on aging and direct approach were evaluated by analyses of covariance adjusted for baseline. A mediating effect of direct approach between exercise participation and views on aging was tested with percentile-based bootstrapping.

Results

In contrast to both the active and the passive control groups, higher direct approach, F(2, 226) = 6.97, p = .001, and less aging dissatisfaction, F(2, 225) = 5.39, p = .005, were observed in the exercise group after 6 months. Exercise had an indirect beneficial effect on aging dissatisfaction through direct approach, B = −0.31, 95% CI = −0.68 to −0.05.

Conclusion

In women above 70 years, exercise participation increases direct approach motivation which in turn leads to lower aging dissatisfaction. This shows that exercise holds the potential to overcome subjective ageist bias.     

A systemic social-cognitive perspective on doping

Objectives

The present article provides a theoretically sound framework (i.e., a social-cognitive approach), using conceptual models and concrete examples, to aid our understanding of why some people dope.

Design

Recognizing that sports occur in a social environment, the current article is grounded in social-cognitive theory. Additionally, since many studies investigating doping have attempted to use cause-and-effect or correlational methods, this article emphasized the systemic nature of doping behavior.

Method

The present article succinctly clarifies why some people take greater risks than others (e.g., dope), and specifically discusses the roles of history, obedience to authority, brain development, culture, stereotypes, and reinforcement, as they relate with doping.

Results

Although likely possible, it is difficult to provide an example of an effective intervention that adequately addresses the deletion of doping. However, an example based on social-cognitive principles is provided.

Conclusions

Future research that emphasizes a social-cognitive approach to doping is needed. Interventions built from such research likely will lead to effective anti-doping interventions.     

Images of exercising: Exploring the links between exercise imagery use, autonomous and controlled motivation to exercise, and exercise intention and behavior

Objectives

In the present study, we tested a model examining the relationships between exercise imagery use, motivational regulations for exercise engagement, intention to exercise, and self-reported exercise behavior. This work represents an initial attempt to examine relationships between a new type of exercise imagery (enjoyment imagery) and motivational regulations for exercise.

Design

Cross-sectional.

Method

Exercisers with a mean age of 40.29 years (SD = 13.29; 177 female, 141 male) completed measures of the targeted variables.

Results

Structural equation modeling analyses revealed direct and indirect (via motivational regulations) links between imagery and exercise-related outcomes. Technique and enjoyment imagery were positively related to autonomous motivation. Conversely, appearance imagery was positively associated with controlled motivation. Direct relationships were evidenced between energy imagery and self-reported exercise behavior, and between appearance imagery and intention to exercise.

Conclusions

The potential motivational functions served by different exercise imagery types are discussed, and the inclusion of enjoyment imagery in future exercise imagery research is recommended.     

Youth athletes’ perception of autonomy support from the coach, peer motivational climate and intrinsic motivation in sport setting: One-year effects

Objectives

Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) and achievement goal theory (AGT; Nicholls, 1989), the present study examined the temporal stability and reciprocal relationships among three key variables related to motivation: perceived autonomy support from the coach, task-involving peer motivational climates, and athletes’ intrinsic motivation.

Design

A prospective longitudinal design with data collected on two occasions one year apart over the course of a youth training season.

Method

Young athletes (N = 362, age range 11-16 years) completed measures of the Sport Climate Questionnaire and the Peer Motivational Climate in Youth Sport Questionnaire. One-year later participants completed these questionnaires again along with the Sport Motivation Scale.

Results

Structural equation modeling indicated that perceived autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer motivational climates exhibited comparatively high stability over a one-year period. In cross-lagged analyses, perceived autonomy support from the coach positively predicted task-involving peer climate one-year later but not vice versa. In addition, both social factors demonstrated a significant direct effect on athletes intrinsic motivation measured concurrently in sport contexts. Further, an alternative structural model supported a longitudinal direct effect of autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer climate measured on the first occasion on subsequent intrinsic motivation.

Conclusion

Results demonstrated the value of perceived autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer motivational climate in predicting athletes’ intrinsic motivation over a training year. Findings also suggest that perceived autonomy support from the coach can facilitate later task-involving peer motivational climate.     

Investigating the effects of ego depletion on physical exercise routines of athletes

Objectives

Persisting at a task can temporarily reduce one’s ability to persist at subsequent tasks. This phenomenon is known as “ego depletion”. Although ego depletion has been linked to many cognitive tasks less is known about its effect on physical tasks. Even less is known about its effect on practiced physical performance associated with athletes. In modern sport science, the question as to whether or not ego depletion can reduce athletes’ persistence at practiced behaviour should be particularly important. Two experimental studies investigated if ego depletion can reduce athletes’ persistence at a routine physical exercise.

Design

In both experiments, a repeated measures design was employed.

Method

Competitive rowers (Experiment 1) and competitive hockey and rugby players (Experiment 2) attempted to complete as many press-ups (Experiment 1) or sit-ups (Experiment 2) as possible over two separate phases. In one phase, the participants attempted the physical exercise after completing an easy cognitive task. In the other phase, they attempted the physical exercise after completing a difficult cognitive task.

Results

Experiment 1 demonstrated that the competitive rowers completed fewer press-ups after completing a difficult cognitive task than they did after completing an easy task. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the competitive hockey and rugby players completed fewer sit-ups after completing a difficult cognitive task than they did after completing an easy cognitive task.

Conclusions

These findings indicate that athletes’ exercise routines are susceptible to ego depletion and that the strength model of self-regulation is applicable to athletic performance.     

The impact of experiential avoidance on the reduction of depression in treatment for borderline personality disorder

Background

Reducing symptoms of depression is an important target in the treatment of borderline personality disorder (BPD). Although current treatments for BPD are effective in reducing depression, the average post-treatment level of depression remains high.

Aim

To test whether experiential avoidance (EA) impedes the reduction of depression during treatment for BPD.

Method

EA and depression were assessed in 81 clients at baseline and 4-month intervals during 1 year of therapy. Simple correlations, hierarchical linear modeling, and latent difference score models were used to investigate the association between self-reports of EA and both self-reports and observer-based ratings of depression.

Results

EA was positively associated with greater severity of depression at all points of assessment, and changes in EA were positively associated with changes in depression. Moreover, EA significantly predicted less subsequent reduction in depression whereas no such effect was found for depression on subsequent EA.

Conclusion

The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that EA impedes the reduction of depression in the treatment of BPD and should thus be considered an important treatment target.     

Exercise imagery and its correlates in older adults

Objectives

The purpose of the present study was to test a structural model examining the interrelationships between exercise imagery, self-reported exercise behaviour and well-being in older adults.

Design

Cross-sectional survey.

Method

Participants were 499 older Greek adults (50.10% males) aged between 51 and 84 years (M age = 57.31; SD = 5.52) who completed questionnaires measuring exercise imagery use, exercise behaviour, subjective vitality, and physical self-worth. The relationship between these variables was tested with a structural model based on the applied model of imagery use for exercise (Munroe-Chandler & Gammage, 2005).

Results

Energy imagery positively predicted exercise behaviour and subjective vitality, and appearance and technique imagery positively predicted physical self-worth.

Conclusions

These results indicate older adults engage in different types of imagery to motivate themselves to exercise and improve their well-being, thus implying that the content of imagery interventions should be specifically tailored to the outcomes older adults wish to realise for interventions to be effective.     

Trait perfectionism, self-determination, and self-presentation processes in relation to exercise behavior

Objectives

Motivational and self-presentational processes pervade all aspects of our lives including exercise behaviors. Furthermore, trait perfectionism has been shown to heighten self-presentational tendencies and energize achievement striving ( [Flett and Hewitt, 2002] and [Hewitt et?al., 2003]). How maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism traits relate to these cognitive and behavioral processes specific to the exercise context remains to be determined. This study employed structural equation modeling to examine the associations between maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism, self-determination of exercise behavior, self-presentation in exercise, and exercise behavior.

Method

Two hundred and fifty-four undergraduate students completed items assessing frequency, intensity, and duration of aerobic exercise behavior, along with measures of Multidimensional Perfectionism (Cox, Enns, & Clara, 2002), Self-Presentation in Exercise ( [Conroy et?al., 2000] and [Gammage et?al., 2004]), and self-determination of exercise behavior utilizing the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-2; Markland & Tobin, 2004).

Results

Results supported a structural model in which the associations between perfectionism dimensions and aerobic exercise behavior were mediated by opposing relationships with relative autonomy (RAI; Markland & Tobin, 2004) and self-presentation processes. Distinctively, maladaptive perfectionism demonstrated an inverse direct effect on the RAI and positive direct effects on self-presentation processes. In contrast, adaptive perfectionism exerted a positive direct effect on the RAI and inverse direct effects on self-presentation processes.

Conclusions

These findings highlight the importance of both maladaptive and adaptive dimensions of perfectionism in the study of exercise outcomes and within the broader social context linking perfectionism and motivation.     

Reciprocity of the relationship between role ambiguity and group cohesion in youth interdependent sport

Objectives

Based on the role episode model (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964), the purpose of this study was to examine the reciprocal relationship between role ambiguity (Beauchamp, Bray, Eys, & Carron, 2002) and group cohesion (Eys, Loughead, Bray, & Carron, 2009) in youth interdependent sport teams.

Design

Longitudinal research with self-reported questionnaires.

Methods

Participants (N = 162; 12-18 years of age; M = 15.00 years) took part in two testing sessions (midseason vs. late-season) designed to gather information on individual perceptions of role ambiguity and group cohesion.

Results

After statistically controlling for status, gender, and team membership, results demonstrated that perceptions of social cohesion at midseason positively predicted variations in perceptions of scope of responsibilities and role behaviors in defense between mid- and end of season.

Conclusions

The need to belong (fundamental human motivation) and the unbalanced gender composition of the sample could explain the salience of social cohesion in the cohesion-role ambiguity relationship within youth interdependent sport teams. Results underlined that a part of role construction within youth teams is based on the peer social relationships developed between teammates. Implications are identified for youth practice. Limitations and future directions are addressed.     

Physical activity interventions in the school setting: A systematic review

Objectives

To review the effectiveness of school-based interventions with a physical activity component by measuring changes in psychological determinants, physical activity, and health outcomes.

Design

Systematic Review.

Method

We conducted a literature search of school-based controlled studies that involved a physical activity intervention targeting school students. Study design, methodological quality, and effectiveness of interventions on three target levels, ‘health and fitness’ (BMI and motor performance), ‘physical activity’, and ‘psychological determinants’ (knowledge of physical activity effects, self-concept, and attitudes towards physical activity), were analysed. Furthermore, we examined the influence of specific factors (e.g., age and gender) and mediator effects.

Results

The literature search identified 129 studies. The majority of the studies examining motor performance, physical activity, and knowledge of physical activity achieved significant results (69.7%, 56.8% and 87.5%, respectively). Significant effects on self-concept and attitudes were also found but to a smaller extent (in 30% and 43.8% of the studies, respectively). Only a few studies examining BMI (2.7%), physical activity (6.8%), and attitudes towards physical activity (12.5%) revealed negative effects, with better results observed for the control group. Intervention effects were influenced by the students’ age, intervention type, and frequency of the interventions. Self-efficacy was found to mediate the relationship between the program and the students’ physical activity.

Conclusions

Numerous school-based physical activity interventions achieved positive effects on three target levels. Further research is needed to clarify the mediator effects of psychological variables on physical activity and health and to increase our knowledge about the mechanisms that underlie behavioural change.     

Predicting parental social influences: The role of physical activity variability

Objectives

This study examined how variations in the activity of adolescents might relate to the social influences used by parents. Specifically, mean differences in activity across adolescents (individual differences) as well as variation in activity within adolescents (intra-individual variation) were used to predict the use of family social influence.

Design

A prospective design was used.

Methods

High school students (N = 329) completed measures of activity (six times) and social influences received from family (positive, negative, collaborative) (five times) over a one-year period. A multilevel analysis was used to predict each of the three types of social influence. The predictors included activity in two forms: The individual’s mean level of activity (i.e., individual differences) and activity at the previous time point as a deviation from the individual’s mean activity level (i.e., intra-individual variation).

Results

Controlling for age, gender and school, results revealed that both individual differences in mean activity level (b = 0.04, p < .001) and intra-individual variation in activity (b = −0.02, p = .055) predicted use of collaborative influence. For positive influence, only individual differences in mean activity level was a predictor (b = 0.02, p < .001). Neither form of activity predicted parental use of negative influence.

Conclusions

Results revealed support for the positive relationship between both positive and collaborative types of influence and individual differences in activity that is typically reported in the literature. However, a negative relationship between intra-individual variation in activity and collaborative social influences also was found. This negative relationship, where lower activity than normal by the adolescent was related to a greater use of collaborative influence by the parent, may be indicative of a regulatory form of social influence.     

The stability of mastery motivation and its relationship with home environment in infants and toddlers

Mastery motivation (intrinsic drives to explore and master one's environment) is a key developmental element. The aims of this study were to investigate (1) the stability of mastery motivation between 2 and 3 years of age for two genders; and (2) the associations between early home environment and toddlers’ mastery motivation in children with typical development.

Methods

Data of 102 children developing typically from a birth cohort study at Northern Taiwan were analyzed in two parts: (1) stability part: mastery motivation of children were measured at 2 and 3 years of age; (2) environment part: child-parent dyads were assessed from birth, 4 months, 6 months, and 2-3 years of age. Outcomes variables were measured at ages 2 and 3 years by the Dimension of Mastery Questionnaire-17th version. Main predictive variables were measured by Home Observation for Measuring Environment Inventory (HOME) to collect data of the qualities of home environment at 6 months and 2 years; by the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire to obtain 4-month activity levels; and by the Comprehensive Developmental Inventory for Infants and Toddlers to obtain 2-year developmental quotient (DQ).

Results

There was moderate stability of mastery motivation from 2 to 3 years, and girls’ stability was higher than boys’. 6-Month HOME rather than 2-year HOME measures were positively and significantly correlated with instrumental mastery motivation even when controlling for gender, activity level, and DQ.

Conclusion

Mastery motivation had moderate stability during the toddler period. The quality of home environment in infancy appeared to have a significant impact on toddler's mastery motivation. To promote mastery motivation, caregivers should provide better quality of home environment for infants/toddlers during the very early years.     

Loss of control eating and psychological maintenance in children: An ecological momentary assessment study

Objective

Recent research suggests that binge eating is a common experience in youth. However, it remains largely unknown how children's binge eating presents in everyday life and which psychological factors serve to maintain this binge eating.

Methods

Children aged 8-13 years with binge eating (n = 59), defined as at least one episode of loss of control (LOC) over eating within the past three months, and 59 matched children without LOC history were recruited from the community. Following a combined random- and event-sampling protocol, children were interviewed about their day-to-day eating behavior, mood, and eating disorder-specific cognitions using child-specific cell phones during a 4-day assessment period in their natural environment.

Results

LOC episodes led to a significantly greater intake of energy, particularly from carbohydrates, than regular meals of children with and without LOC eating. While LOC episodes were preceded and followed by cognitions about food/eating and body image, there was minimal evidence that negative mood states were antecedents of LOC eating.

Conclusions

The results provide support for the construct validity of LOC eating in children. Maintenance theories of binge eating for adults apply to children regarding eating disorder-specific cognitions, but the association with affect regulation difficulties requires further investigation.     

Cognitive style and depressive symptoms in elderly people - Extending the empirical evidence for the cognitive vulnerability-stress hypothesis

Introduction

Depression is common in older people and its identification and treatment has been highlighted as one of the major challenges in an ageing world. Poor physical and cognitive health, bereavement, and prior depression are important risk factors for depression in elderly people. Attributional or cognitive style has been identified as a risk factor for depression in children, adolescents and younger adults but its relevance for depression and mood in elderly people has not been investigated in the context of other risk factors.

Method

Sixty-four older adults from an ‘extra care’ living scheme (aged 59-97) were recruited for a 6-week prospective study to examine the relationships between cognitive style and depressive symptoms.

Results

Regression analyses revealed that, when other risk factors were controlled for, cognitive style and its interaction with stress predicted changes in depressive symptoms, therefore partially replicating prior research.

Conclusion

Cognitive-stress-vulnerability models also apply to elderly populations, but may be rather predictive of changes in depression when facing lower levels of stress.     

Constructs of physical activity behaviour in children: The usefulness of Social Cognitive Theory

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among several Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2004) constructs (e.g., self-efficacy) and children’s physical activity behaviours.

Design

Children from six elementary schools (N = 479) in grades 4th to 6th from five different school districts in the Southwestern USA participated in this study by completing a sociocognitive instrument as well as wearing a pedometer for five school days.

Methods

Previously validated scales were combined and administered to all children in order to examine the relationships among five constructs (self-efficacy, outcome expectations, social support, barriers, and goals) and physical activity participation was measured via pedometer. Data analyses included a two-step approach with confirmatory factor analysis followed by structural equation modelling.

Results

The confirmatory factor analyses indicated an adequate fit of the specified model. The structural model fit statistics also suggested that the data fit the specified model: χ² (8, N = 476) = 24.44, p = 0.00, χ²/df = 3.06, GFI = 0.98, AGFI = 0.96, CFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.07. The model explained 15% of the variance in social support, 11% of the variance in goals, 11% of the variance in barriers, 9% of the variance in outcome expectations, and 2% of the variance in physical activity. Self-efficacy was a strong predictor of total social support, total number of barriers, and outcome expectations.

Conclusions

This study supports the use of Social Cognitive Theory in understanding the constructs of physical activity behaviour in children, however, very little variance in behaviours was explained. There is a need to also investigate environmental influences on children’s decisions to be physically active.     

An assessment of the similarities between a measure of positive perfectionism and a measure of conscientious achievement striving

Objectives

The purpose of the study was to examine the similarities between the constructs measured by the positive perfectionism subscale from the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale and the achievement striving subscale from the Revised NEO Personality Inventory.

Design

A non-experimental design was adopted.

Method

One-hundred and seventy-nine junior basketball players (age M = 16.50, s = 1.12) completed measures of positive perfectionism, conscientious achievement striving and other external measures.

Results

Analyses revealed that the two scales were highly positively correlated and demonstrated a similar pattern of relationships with the external measures. However, a single latent factor model provided a comparatively poorer fit than a two latent factor model.

Conclusions

There is some evidence that the positive perfectionism and achievement striving constructs measured by the scales in this study are distinguishable as two distinct factors in a confirmatory factor analysis; however, more empirical evidence is needed to establish their substantive differences.