Viewing exercise goal content through a person-oriented lens: A self-determination perspective

The present study examined profiles of exercise goal content and the associations with need satisfaction, motivation regulation and exercise behavior, combining variable-centered and person-centered analytical approaches. The participants were 1084 (279 men and 805 women) Swedish adults, aged between 18 and 78 years, that were all active members of an Internet-based exercise program. Latent profile analysis (LPA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to analyze the data. In SEM analysis intrinsic goals were related to need satisfaction and autonomous motivation, whereas extrinsic goals were most strongly associated with controlled motivation. LPA revealed five unique latent classes of goal content. These five classes differed in need satisfaction, motivation regulation and exercise behavior, with classes being characterized by more intrinsic goal profiles reporting higher need satisfaction and autonomous motivation. The results are discussed from a self-determination theory perspective and the benefits of using both variable and person-centered analytical approaches are highlighted.     

Personality and self-determination of exercise behaviour

There is extensive evidence that personality traits are associated with health-related behaviours, but less evidence regarding the underlying mechanisms. In this study, we examined the relationships between personality and self-determination of exercise behaviour. Users of a sports centre completed personality scales (the NEO Five Factor Inventory supplemented with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Psychoticism scale) and exercise self-determination scales (Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire which measures extrinsic, introjected, identified and intrinsic forms of regulation). Analyses were restricted to 182 individuals in the maintenance stage of exercise participation. Partial correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships between each personality scale and the self-determination scales, controlling for other personality scales, gender and age. Neuroticism was associated with more introjected regulation, extraversion with more identified and intrinsic regulation, openness with less external regulation, conscientiousness with less external regulation and more intrinsic regulation, and psychoticism with more external regulation. Relating these findings to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), it is speculated that extraverted individuals are able to feel self-determined because exercise can satisfy the need for relatedness, conscientious individuals because exercise can satisfy the need for competence. Furthermore, conscientious individuals may have greater wherewithal to advance along the continuum of behavioural regulation.     

Self-image goals in trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation: Toward a broader understanding of the drives and motives of perfectionists

The current research extends previous theory and research on perfectionism and motivation by showing that perfectionism involves a propensity to pursue self-image goals. It was shown across three studies that dimensions of trait and self-presentational perfectionism were associated with self-image goals in the areas of academics, friendships, and self-improvement. These associations were not simply a reflection of the variance attributable to constructs associated with perfectionism such as self-silencing or self-consciousness. Further, validation seeking mediated the association between perfectionism and self-image goals. Additionally, self-image goals mediated the associations that perfectionism has with depression and burnout. Our findings suggest that perfectionists operate according to a chronically activated “egosystem” and their preoccupation with self-image concerns is central to understanding the compulsive striving and pressure they experience.     

Daily fluctuations in perfectionism dimensions and their relation to eating disorder symptoms

Multidimensional perfectionism has been shown to play an important role in eating disorders (EDs). However, research examining this relation has primarily focused on relatively stable inter-individual differences between persons, thereby failing to examine how these variables are associated within individuals on a daily basis. This study examines how daily fluctuations in Personal Standards (PS) perfectionism and Evaluative Concerns (EC) perfectionism relate to each other and to fluctuations in ED symptoms. Adolescents (N = 275) completed questionnaires each evening during seven consecutive days. Multilevel modeling showed significant day-to-day fluctuations in PS and EC perfectionism, and showed that both dimensions are intertwined in the day. Among females, fluctuations in EC perfectionism co-varied with fluctuations in ED symptoms.     

Testing a bi-factor model to disentangle general and specific factors of motivation in self-determination theory

We examined the utility of the bi-factor model for disentangling general motivation and specific motivations (i.e., amotivation, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic regulations) in relation to goal progress and physical activity (PA). Participants (N = 186 undergraduate students; M_age = 19.26 years) completed assessments of motivation and PA at Time 1. Four weeks later, PA and goal progress were assessed at Time 2. Results indicated that the exploratory bi-factor model specifying motivational regulations as the specific factors and general motivation as the general factor was a good fit to the data. Results of the structural equation model indicated that identified and intrinsic regulations and general motivation predicted concurrent PA at Time 1. A novel finding was that controlling for concurrent PA at Time 1, general motivation emerged as the only predictor of Time 2 goal progress and PA. Results highlight the importance of examining general motivation in addition to quality of motivation in tandem because general motivation emerged as the sole significant longitudinal predictor of PA outcomes.     

Role of motivation in the relation between perfectionism and academic burnout in Korean students

The purpose of this research is to investigate the relations among perfectionistic traits, motivation types, and academic burnout in Korean adolescents. A total of 283 students responded to the survey. The results indicated that there are significant mediation effects of motivation variables on the relation between perfectionistic traits and academic burnout symptoms. Specifically, intrinsic motivation partially mediated the relation between self-oriented perfectionism and burnout. That is, self-oriented perfectionism was positively related to greater levels of intrinsic motivation, and in turn, greater intrinsic motivation was negatively related to academic burnout. Meanwhile, extrinsic motivation fully mediated the relation between socially prescribed perfectionism and burnout. In other words, socially prescribed perfectionism was positively related to greater levels of extrinsic motivation, and in turn, greater extrinsic motivation was positively related to academic burnout. Practical implications for educators are discussed.     

The interaction of perfectionism, perceived weight status, and self-esteem to predict bulimic symptoms: the role of 'benign' perfectionism

The present study sought to replicate an interactive model of global perfectionism, perceived weight status, and self-esteem in predicting bulimic symptom development in a sample of young women [Bardone-Cone, et al. (2006). Predicting bulimic symptoms: An interactive model of self-efficacy, perfectionism, and perceived weight status. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 27-42; Vohs, K. D., et al. (1999). Perfectionism, perceived weight status, and self-esteem interact to predict bulimic symptoms: A model of bulimic symptom development. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 695-700; Vohs, K. D., et al. (2001). Perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem: An interactive model of bulimic symptom development. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 476-497]. The aim was to investigate the role of 'problematic' and 'benign' perfectionism within this model, using data from 95 female university students over a 3-month period. Contrary to hypotheses, multivariate analyses revealed a significant three-way interaction only between 'benign' perfectionism, perceived weight status and self-esteem in predicting change in bulimic symptoms over a 3-month period. The predictive effect of the interaction between 'benign' perfectionism and perceived weight status on bulimic symptoms was strongest for women with high self-esteem, for whom feeling overweight and having perfectionistic attitudes preceded increased bulimic symptoms. These findings suggest that high self-esteem is insufficient to protect against the development of bulimic symptoms when both the perception of oneself as being overweight, and high levels of perfectionistic standards, are present. It would appear that the role of perfectionism within the context of disordered eating is complex.     

An empirical typology of perfectionism in early-to-mid adolescents and its relation with eating disorder symptoms

Although the association between perfectionism and eating disorder (ED) symptoms is well-established, debate remains about the relative contribution of two central dimensions of perfectionism, that is, Personal Standards (PS) perfectionism and Evaluative Concerns (EC) perfectionism, in the prediction of ED symptoms. This study used cluster analysis to establish naturally occurring combinations of PS and EC perfectionism in early-to-mid adolescents (N = 656; M age = 13.9 years). Evidence was obtained for four perfectionism profiles: (1) maladaptive perfectionism (high PS and high EC), (2) pure evaluative concerns perfectionism (high EC only), (3) adaptive perfectionism (high PS, low EC), and (4) non-perfectionism (low on both PS and EC). A comparison of participants in these four clusters in terms of ED symptoms suggests that a combination of high personal standards and evaluative concerns (rather than the presence of one of these two dimensions alone) is most strongly related to ED symptoms.     

Mental imagery increases self-determined motivation to exercise with university enrolled women: A randomized controlled trial using a peer-based intervention

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a peer-based mental imagery intervention on the self-determined motivation and cardio-respiratory fitness of university enrolled women.DesignRandomized controlled trial.Method43 University enrolled women were randomized to peer-mentored or peer-mentored plus mental imagery conditions while 32 completed three meetings with peer-mentors and post-testing (M^age = 19.91; SD = 1.70).ResultsSignificant improvements in cardio-respiratory endurance, ratings of perceived endurance, and self-determined motivation to exercise were observed across both study conditions. Participants assigned to the peer mentored plus mental imagery condition reported significantly greater increases in self-determined motivation to exercise at post-test compared to those in the peer-mentored condition.ConclusionsPeer-based interventions are a viable way to improve fitness and health outcomes while mental imagery appears to be associated with increases in autonomous forms of exercise motivation.     

Preoccupied attachment,need to belong,shame, and interpersonal perfectionism: An investigation of the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model

According to the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model, interpersonal components of perfectionism (i.e., socially prescribed perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation) develop when individuals exhibit an inordinate need for belongingness and shame as a result of early attachment insecurity and/or a lack of emotional attunement in the caregiver–child relationship. This study hence examined the mediating effects of the need to belong and shame on the relationships between insecure attachment and interpersonal perfectionism. A sample of 513 undergraduates completed self-report measures including trait perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, shame, the need for belongingness, and attachment styles. As hypothesized, socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were both positively associated with the need to belong, shame, and insecure attachment styles. Furthermore, results from multiple mediation analyses indicated that the associations between preoccupied attachment and interpersonal components of perfectionism were mediated by a strong need for belongingness and shame. The present study hence provides further empirical support for the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model and highlights the importance of examining the quality of attachment relationships for individuals with elevated interpersonal perfectionism.     

A multilevel analysis of the self-presentation theory of social anxiety: Contextualized, dispositional, and interactive perspectives

According to self-presentation theory, social anxiety is determined by impression motivation and impression efficacy. However, researchers have not evaluated the theory’s applicability from contextual and dispositional perspectives in an integrated manner, nor have they examined a fundamental interactive facet of the theory. In three studies, we examined these issues using hypothetical situations and experience sampling methodology. Results demonstrated the theory’s applicability at the contextual and dispositional level, providing insight into people’s general tendencies to experience social anxiety and their momentary experiences of social anxiety. Results also revealed the predicted interaction between impression motivation and impression efficacy - high impression efficacy weakens the association between impression motivation and social anxiety. These studies expand understanding of the personological and situational factors that drive social anxiety.     

Perfectionistic self-presentation, body image, and eating disorder symptoms

A specific model for eating disorder symptoms involving perfectionistic self-presentation and two different moderators (i.e., body image evaluation and body image investment) was tested. Participants completed measures of perfectionistic self-presentation, body image dysfunction, and eating disorder symptoms. Findings indicated that all three dimensions of perfectionistic self-presentation were associated with eating disorder symptoms. Results also showed that perfectionistic self-presentation predicted eating disorder symptoms in women who were dissatisfied with their bodies, but that it did not predict eating problems in women who liked their bodies and felt there was little or no discrepancy between their actual and ideal appearances. Body image investment did not moderate the relationship between perfectionistic self-presentation and eating disorder symptoms, suggesting that ego-involvement alone is insufficient to promote eating disturbance in the context of perfectionism. The importance of self-presentation components of perfectionism and specific body image difficulties in predicting eating disorder symptoms are discussed.     

Autonomous motivation,cardiorespiratory fitness,and exercise in rheumatoid arthritis: Randomised controlled trial

ObjectiveRheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease, characterised by high-grade systemic inflammation, pain, and swollen joints. RA patients have an increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). This study examined if a 3-month individualised RA-tailored exercise programme with one-on-one Self-Determination Theory (SDT)-based support for physical activity (PA) facilitated autonomous motivation, increased PA behaviour, and induced greater improvements in cardiovascular and RA-related disease characteristics, and wellbeing in RA, compared to a standard provision tailored exercise programme.Methods115 RA patients were randomised into either the SDT-based psychological intervention + exercise programme (experimental group) or an exercise programme only (control group). Cardiorespiratory fitness (primary outcome), self-reported PA, disease characteristics, CVD risk, wellbeing, and SDT constructs were assessed at baseline (pre-intervention), 3 months (post-intervention), 6 months, and 12 months follow-up. Mixed linear modeling was used to examine within- and between participant changes in these outcome measures.ResultsIn 88 patients with complete baseline data, cardiorespiratory fitness did not change from baseline to 3-, 6- or 12 months in either group. CVD risk, disease characteristics, wellbeing, and need satisfaction did not change, with the exception of diastolic blood pressure. Significant group by time interaction effects were found for functional ability (6- & 12-months), CVD risk (6-months) and PA (3-months). Autonomous motivation increased and controlled motivation decreased more in the experimental group compared to the control group at 3 months.ConclusionsDespite improving quality of motivation for exercise, no changes in cardiorespiratory fitness or other psychological and physiological health outcomes were found. This suggests more intensive support is needed when initiating an exercise programme to achieve health benefits in RA.     

The role of dichotomous thinking and rigidity in perfectionism

Perfectionism is a complex psychological construct that has been defined in many different ways. Recent conceptualisations of perfectionism have involved dividing the construct into positive and negative components. Negative perfectionism is associated with high emotional distress whereas positive perfectionism is associated with positive affect and lower levels of distress. Although these distinctions have been made it remains unclear as to how distinct the two aspects of perfectionism are particularly in terms of their cognitive profiles. This study investigated two cognitive constructs that have been theoretically linked to perfectionism. Dichotomous thinking and rigidity were examined in three samples (40 clinical participants, 111 athletes, 101 students). As hypothesised, the clinical sample had the highest score on negative perfectionism, however, no differences were observed between groups on positive perfectionism. Dichotomous thinking emerged as the variable most predictive of negative perfectionism, and was less strongly related to positive perfectionism. These results highlight the importance of dichotomous thinking as a cognitive construct worthy of further research to understand negative perfectionism. Implications for the development of cognitive therapy interventions for negative perfectionism are discussed.     

Relationships between perfectionism,self-report impulsivity measures and delay discounting

Perfectionism and impulsivity are multidimensional constructs. While different perfectionism dimensions are exclusively measured through self-reports, different impulsivity dimensions can be measured through self-report or behaviour via preferences for different rewards. This study explored differential associations between perfectionism and impulsivity based on both dimension and measurement modality (self-report/behavioural). We then examined whether adaptive or maladaptive perfectionism would be differentially associated with impulsivity. Two-hundred and six students completed two perfectionism and three impulsivity measures (two self-report; one behavioural). Two self-report impulsivity measures were associated with specific perfectionism dimensions, whereas the behavioural measure was not associated with perfectionism. Maladaptive perfectionism was associated with decreasing impulsivity, whereas adaptive perfectionism was associated with increasing impulsivity. Perfectionism related to impulsivity differently depending on how each construct was measured.     

Political support for self-determination,wealth, and national subjective well-being

The present paper explored the relation of wealth and support for self-determination to national subjective well-being (SWB). Support for self-determination was considered from both a political and cultural values standpoint. The results confirmed associations between wealth, support for self-determination, and well-being in a large sample of countries. Importantly, political and cultural value supports for self-determination remained significantly associated with national well-being (as measured by happiness reports and life expectancy) even after controlling for national differences in wealth.

Examining the relationship of perfectionism,depression, and optimism: Testing for mediation and moderation

The present study investigated the relationship between perfectionism and depression, and the mediation/moderation effects of optimism. Participants were126 adults (78% women, mean age = 27 years) who completed an online survey that included the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990), the Revised Life Orientation Test (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994), and the Hamilton Depression Inventory (Reynolds & Kobak, 1995). Maladaptive, adaptive and total perfectionism were examined in separate analyses. In most analyses, the data fit a mediation model. Optimism limited the effect (relationship) of total and maladaptive perfectionism on depression. Adaptive perfectionism was related to depression only through optimism. There was a small gender difference, with indirect effects greater for men. These results are consistent with past research and support the notion that correlations between perfectionism, as a trait, and affective variables must be examined using multivariate models that allow for the determination of complex relationships.     

Perfectionistic self-presentation, socially prescribed perfectionism, and suicide in youth: a test of the perfectionism social disconnection model

The role of interpersonal components of perfectionism in suicide outcomes among youth was assessed and the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) was tested by determining whether the links between socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) and perfectionistic self-presentation (PSP) and suicide outcomes are mediated by experiences of social disconnection, as indicated by social hopelessness and being bullied. PSP, trait perfectionism, suicide outcomes, and experiences of being bullied and social hopelessness were measured in 152 psychiatric outpatient children and adolescents. Correlational tests confirmed that PSP and SPP were associated with suicide outcomes and these interpersonal perfectionism components were associated significantly with bullying and social hopelessness. Support was also obtained for the PSDM. The relationship between the PSP facets, particularly nondisplay of imperfections, and suicide outcomes were mediated by being bullied. Additionally, the relationship between all interpersonal components of perfectionism and suicide risk was mediated by social hopelessness. Theoretical and clinical implications of interpersonal components of perfectionism and social disconnection in suicide outcomes for youth are discussed.     

Images of exercising: Exploring the links between exercise imagery use, autonomous and controlled motivation to exercise, and exercise intention and behavior

Objectives

In the present study, we tested a model examining the relationships between exercise imagery use, motivational regulations for exercise engagement, intention to exercise, and self-reported exercise behavior. This work represents an initial attempt to examine relationships between a new type of exercise imagery (enjoyment imagery) and motivational regulations for exercise.

Design

Cross-sectional.

Method

Exercisers with a mean age of 40.29 years (SD = 13.29; 177 female, 141 male) completed measures of the targeted variables.

Results

Structural equation modeling analyses revealed direct and indirect (via motivational regulations) links between imagery and exercise-related outcomes. Technique and enjoyment imagery were positively related to autonomous motivation. Conversely, appearance imagery was positively associated with controlled motivation. Direct relationships were evidenced between energy imagery and self-reported exercise behavior, and between appearance imagery and intention to exercise.

Conclusions

The potential motivational functions served by different exercise imagery types are discussed, and the inclusion of enjoyment imagery in future exercise imagery research is recommended.     

Perfectionism,discrepancies, and depression: Testing the perfectionism social disconnection model in a short-term,four-wave longitudinal study

Perfectionistic concerns (i.e., negative reactions to failures, exaggerated concerns over others’ criticism and expectations, and nagging self-doubts) are linked to social disconnection and depressive symptoms. According to the perfectionism social disconnection model, perfectionistic concerns contribute to social disconnection (i.e., feeling rejected, excluded, and unwanted by others) which, subsequently, contributes to depressive symptoms. The social world is replete with chances for interpretations. In interpreting their social worlds, people high in perfectionistic concerns tend to perceive interpersonal discrepancies, a distressing form of social disconnection that involves perceptions of others as dissatisfied with them and as disapproving of them. These interpretations are also conceptualized as having depressing consequences for people high in perfectionistic concerns. This study tested whether perceived interpersonal discrepancies mediate the relation between perfectionistic concerns and depressive symptoms; 240 participants were recruited and this mediational model was tested with a four-wave, 4-week longitudinal design. Structural equation modeling with bootstrapped tests of mediation indicated the perfectionistic concerns-depressive symptoms relationship was mediated by interpersonal discrepancies (even after controlling for perfectionistic strivings). People high in perfectionistic concerns perceive others as dissatisfied with them and as disapproving of them. Feeling rejected, excluded, and unwanted by others, people high in perfectionistic concerns are vulnerable to depression.