Femininity and work plans protect women against postpartum dysphoria

This study examined contributions of the following variables to postpartum depressive symptomatology: level of antepartum depression, loss of social reinforcement, assertiveness, sex-role orientation, and work plans. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Pleasant Events Schedule (PES), Assertion Inventory, and Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) were administered to 69 women during the eighth month of pregnancy. One month after delivery, subjects were administered the PES, postdelivery questionnaire, and BDI. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that antepartum BDI scores predicted postpartum depressive symptomatology, and BSRI Femininity scores and work plans were significant negative predictors. A one-way analysis of variance of sex role orientation on postpartum BDI scores showed that undifferentiated women reported more depression than other sex role groups.     

Controlled prospective study of postpartum mood disorders: psychological, environmental, and hormonal variables

Demographic, psychiatric, social, cognitive, and life stress variables were used to determine the etiology of depression in childbearing (CB; n = 182) and nonchildbearing (NCB; n = 179) women. Hormonal variables in postpartum depression were also evaluated. In the CB group predictors of depression diagnosis were previous depression, depression during pregnancy, and a Vulnerability (V) x Life Stress (LS) interaction; predictors of depressive symptomatology were previous depression, depressive symptoms during pregnancy, life events, and V x LS. Only estradiol was associated with postpartum depression diagnosis. In the NCB group V X LS was the only predictor of depression diagnosis; depressive symptoms during pregnancy and life events were predictors of depressive symptomatology. Previous findings about depression vulnerability were replicated. The significant V x LS interactions support the vulnerability-stress model of postpartum depression.     

Social Support and Postpartum Depression Revisited: The Traditional Female Role as Moderator among Mexican Women

Women who lack social support tend to have a higher risk of postpartum depression. The present study examined the traditional female role, understood here as the adoption of passive and submissive traits specific to Mexican women, as another risk factor for postpartum depressive symptomatology that interacts with social support. Using two waves of data from a longitudinal study of 210 adult Mexican women (20–44 years-old, M _age = 29.50 years, SD = 6.34), we found that lacking social support during the third trimester of their pregnancy was associated with greater depressive symptoms at 6 months in the postpartum, although this relationship depended on the level of endorsement of the traditional female role during pregnancy. Lower social support during pregnancy predicted greater postpartum depressive symptoms for women with higher endorsement of the traditional female role, even when accounting for prenatal depressive symptoms. These results suggest that Mexican women’s experience of social support may depend on their individual adherence to gender roles. Understanding the association between women’s traditional roles and social support in the risk for postpartum depression can improve prevention and educational programs for women at risk.     

Social support and postpartum depressive symptomatology: The mediating role of maternal self‐efficacy

Research shows that social support and maternal self‐efficacy are inversely related to postpartum depression; however, little is known about the mechanisms by which these variables impact on depressive symptomatology. This study uses path analysis to examine the proposal that maternal self‐efficacy mediates the effects of social support on postpartum depressive symptomatology. Primiparous women (n=247) completed questionnaires during their last trimester and then again at 4 weeks' postpartum (n=192) . It was hypothesized that higher levels of parental support, partner support, and maternal self‐efficacy would be associated with lower levels of depressive symptomatology postpartum and that the relationship between social support and depressive symptomatology would be mediated by maternal self‐efficacy. Results indicated that as expected, higher parental support and maternal self‐efficacy were associated with lower levels of depressive symptomatology postpartum. Partner support was found to be unrelated to both depressive symptomatology and maternal self‐efficacy. Results from the path analysis supported the mediation model. Findings suggest that parental support lowers depressive symptomatology by the enhancement of maternal self‐efficacy.     

Nonpsychotic postpartum depression among adolescent mothers

This study examined the extent to which childbearing increases vulnerability to clinical depression and depressive symptomatology among primiparous adolescent girls (ages 14 to 18). Childbearing Ss (n = 128) were assessed during pregnancy, 6 weeks postpartum, and 1 year postpartum. Matched nonchildbearing Ss (n = 114) were assessed at corresponding time points. Six weeks postpartum, 6% of the childbearing adolescents met Research Diagnostic Criteria for major depression and 20% for minor depression. These rates were not significantly different from those found for nonchildbearing Ss (4% major depression, 10% minor depression). However, higher rates of somatic symptoms of depression were found among the childbearing Ss than among the nonchildbearing Ss.     

Stress, psychosocial resources, and depressive symptomatology during pregnancy in low-income, inner-city women.

The authors examined the prospective influence of stress, self-esteem, and social support on the postpartum depressive symptoms of 191 inner-city women (139 European Americans and 52 African Americans) over 3 waves of data collection. Depressive symptomatology was measured by multiple indicators, including self-report and clinical scales. Women became less depressed as they move from prenatal to postpartum stages and adjusted to their pregnancy and its consequences. LISREL and regression analyses indicated that stress was related to increased depression, whereas greater income and social support were related to decreased depression. Self-esteem was related to lower depression at the prenatal and postpartum periods but not to change in depression from the prenatal to the postpartum period. The results also indicated that self-esteem and social support did not have additional stress-buffering effects over and above their direct effects on depression. Finally, African American women did not differ from European American women terms of depression or in terms of how they were impacted by stress or psychosocial resources.     

Role of psychosocial risk factors in predicting maternal and paternal depressive symptomatology during pregnancy

The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of several psychosocial risk factors in predicting depressive symptomatology during pregnancy in mothers and fathers, respectively. A total of 146 primiparous mothers and 105 primiparous fathers reporting a psychosocial risk condition were recruited independently from maternity and child health services, during the second trimester of pregnancy. All parents were evaluated for depressive symptomatology, anxiety, and perceived social support. Two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed to determine the role of psychosocial factors in predicting depressive symptomatology during pregnancy, in mothers and fathers. Marital dissatisfaction, personal history of depression, and personal trait anxiety were identified as significant predictors of depressive symptomatology during pregnancy, both in mothers and in fathers. Family history of substance abuse, conflictual relationship with the parents in the past year, and bereavement in the past year were identified as significant factors contributing to elevated depressive symptoms during pregnancy in mothers, but not fathers. In this study, several psychosocial risk factors were consistently related to an increase in maternal and paternal depressive symptoms during pregnancy; some of these factors seem to be specifically related to maternal depressive mood.     

Presentation of Depression and Response to Group Cognitive Therapy with Older Patients

Concerned with response prediction, this research examines the relationships between pre-treatment components of depressive symptomatology and outcome of short-term group cognitive therapy for depression with older adults. Aspects of depressive symptomatology under examination were initial intensity of self-reported depressive symptomatology, profile of melancholic depression, perceived health status, perceived social support, and intensity of negative view of self. Findings indicate that perceived social support is not related to outcome but that a more intense depressive symptomatology, a more negative health evaluation, and a more negative view of self are variables associated with a less favorable outcome. Despite showing a sizable decrease in depressive symptoms over the course of intervention, severely depressed subjects still presented residual depressive symptoms at the conclusion of intervention. There was a tendency for subjects with a melancholic profile to show a poorer response to this intervention.     

Judgement of control revisited: Are the depressed realistic or pessimistic?

The study, firstly, examined the depressive realism postulate in relation to control judgments. A group of depressed and nondepressed undergraduates were exposed to a total of six judgement of control tasks (from 0% control tio 100% control). Depressed and nondepressed subjects did not differ in their control judgements. Secondlym, an attempt is made to classify subjects on the basis of these six judgements of control tasks as optimisticm, realistic and pessimistic in perceived control judgements.It was found that pessimistic rather than realistic subjects, had higher depressive symptomatology. Lastly, pessimism about control predicted the depressive symptomatology as assessed three months later. The results are discussed in relation to the phenomenon of depressive realism and the hopelessness theory of depression.     

Perceptions of early relationships during the transition to motherhood: The mediating role of social support

Perceptions of the availability of social support were assumed to mediate the association between the future mother's perceptions of early relationships and positive postpartum outcomes. We explored the idea that pregnant women's perceptions of early caretaking relationships as optimal associate with the perceived availability of, and satisfaction with, social support, which in turn, were assumed to affect postpartum depressive symptomatology, the APGAR (i.e., rates of Appearance [color]; Pulse [heartbeat]; Grimace [reflex]; Activity [muscle tone]; and Respiration [breathing], Nelson, 1987) scores of the newborn, and the mother's perceptions of the infant. Using a longitudinal design, we enrolled 120 first‐time pregnant participants, who were assessed during the third trimester of pregnancy and eight weeks postpartum. Newborns were assessed immediately after birth. Findings confirmed the expected model, controlling for levels of depressive symptomatology during pregnancy. This model is discussed in the context of system and transactional models of mother–infant interactions. ©2002 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Interpersonal factors and perinatal depressive symptomatology in a low-income Latina sample

Interpersonal factors are among the risk factors that predispose women to experiencing mood disturbances during the childbearing years. This study investigates the trajectory of change in depressive symptomatology over the course of the perinatal period as related to interpersonal risk factors (marital quality and social support) in a sample of 69 low-income, mostly immigrant Latina mothers at high and low risk for depression. We found a significant linear change in depressive symptomatology from baseline (pregnancy) through the postpartum period. This decline was steeper for high-risk women who reported high levels of social support compared with those who reported low levels of social support. In addition, a greater decline in depressive symptom scores was found for women who reported better postnatal marital quality, irrespective of risk group status. The results suggest the importance of considering marital quality and social support in estimations of risk for depression. These findings also have implications for targeting social support and marital quality in preventive interventions for perinatal depression in Latinas.     

Infant-holding bias variations in mother–child relationships: A longitudinal study

This longitudinal study examined the associations between maternal depressive symptoms and infant holding bias in a sample of N = 43 women during three prospective sessions: during pregnancy, two months after childbirth, and when the child was 19 months of age. The majority of mothers (65.8% on average) held their children on the left side of their body at all three sessions; approximately 30% demonstrated a change in their preference, in particular between the pre- and first post-natal session. Examination of reciprocal associations between holding bias and depression revealed that prior and concurrent depression did not predict changes in holding-side biases, whereas women's holding preferences when their infant was two months old predicted change in pre- to postnatal depressive symptoms; women favouring a right-sided holding bias were significantly more likely to report increased depressive symptoms across the perinatal period, whereas a left-sided holding bias was associated with decreased depressive symptomatology.     

Negative emotional responses to motherhood-related support receipt during pregnancy predict postpartum depressive symptoms

Background and Objectives: Prenatal stress increases risk for postpartum depression. While social support availability may attenuate this risk, little research has examined support receipt during pregnancy, which has been linked to increased distress in other domains. This study assesses the implications of motherhood-related and motherhood-unrelated support receipt for daily distress during pregnancy and tests whether negative responsiveness to motherhood-related support predicts postpartum depression risk. Design and Method: Thirty-one pregnant women were recruited from the community for a 3-wave study (beginning at approximately 26 weeks gestation, 34 weeks gestation, and 4 weeks postpartum). Each wave included a survey of general characteristics (e.g. depressive symptoms) and a two-week diary period measuring mood, stress, and support. Results: A multilevel model analysis suggested that motherhood-related support predicted greater increases in daily distress than motherhood-unrelated support. Follow-up regression analysis showed that those who responded more negatively to motherhood-related support reported higher postpartum depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Although preliminary due to the sample size, the results suggest that how women interpret and respond to support may contribute to postpartum depression risk. Future research should focus on how mothers can more positively construe the support they receive in addition to how to increase the support available to them.     

Maternal romantic attachment,and antenatal and postnatal mother–infant attachment in a sample of Polish women

In this exploratory study, we evaluated the relationship between a woman's self-reported romantic attachment style (as measured with The Attachment Styles Questionnaire), her experience of pregnancy, antenatal (The Maternal–Fetal Attachment Scale) and postnatal (Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire) attachment with her baby, and depressive symptomatology (The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale). In the first stage of the study 162 pregnant females participated; of these, 64 were followed up in the second stage. The maternal romantic attachment style predicted attachment with the baby in the antenatal, but not in the postpartum period. The anxious-ambivalent romantic attachment style predicted more interaction with and attributing more characteristics to the foetus, secure attachment style was positively correlated with role taking, and avoidant—with attributing more characteristics to the foetus. In the postpartum period, the correlation between antenatal and postnatal attachment was only moderate; role taking during pregnancy correlated with anxiety about care for an infant. However, our study shows the association of the profile of anxious-ambivalent romantic attachment with postpartum depression, which heightens the risk of postnatal mother–infant bonding impairments.     

DOES FATHERS' PRENATAL MENTAL HEALTH BEAR A RELATIONSHIP TO PARENTING STRESS AT 6 MONTHS?

This study aimed to explore fathers’ mental health and retrospectively reported adverse childhood experiences during pregnancy, as well as various pathways predicting self‐reported stress at 6 months’ postpartum as assessed by the Parenting Stress Index (PSI; R.R. Abidin, 1990 ). A total of 835 fathers contributed data to the study. Data collection comprised five time points during pregnancy and one at 6 months’ postpartum. The main analyses were performed using linear regression and path analyses. First, linear regression analyses showed that paternal anxiety symptoms during pregnancy predicted stress scores in the PSI child domain at 6 months (coefficient = 0.36). Second, path analyses showed that depressive symptoms during pregnancy predicted parenting stress in the child domain, mediated by spousal disharmony at 6 months’ postpartum (coefficient = 0.77). Third, adverse childhood experiences scores predicted parenting stress in the child domain by two different pathways: one mediated by anxiety symptoms in pregnancy (coefficient = 0.29) and the other by depressive symptoms in pregnancy and experienced spousal disharmony at 6 months’ postpartum (coefficient = 0.77). The findings suggest that fathers’ symptoms of anxiety and depression during pregnancy as well as adverse childhood experiences predict paternal stress and a negative perception of their children's behavior at 6 months’ postpartum.     

Trait Forgiveness and Dyadic Adjustment Predict Postnatal Depression

The birth of a first child can be stressful on intimate partner relationships and the women having their first child. Conflict can occur, and hurts might be experienced, which could lead to post-partum depression. Thus, capacity for forgiveness with specific hurts might affect post-partum depression. We investigated women having their first child (N?=?52), and examined whether dyadic adjustment, trait forgiveness, and situational forgiving during pregnancy predicted postpartum depression. This study found that marital forgiveness predicted lower levels of depression above and beyond the effects of general dyadic adjustment. Dyadic adjustment and trait forgiveness predicted postpartum depression while situational forgiving was mixed. Postpartum depression researchers are encouraged to consider the inclusion of positive psychology variables, such as forgiveness, in future research studies.     

Distinct Psychological Characteristics Predict Resilience and Recovery Throughout Widowhood

The dual-process model proposes that early and later bereavement involves different types of stressors and adaptation processes (Stroebe & Schut, 1999, 2010). It is thus possible that different factors facilitate adaptation during the early months versus subsequent years following widowhood. Elevated depressive symptoms, though prevalent after widowhood, may indicate problematic adaptation, as they are associated with poor long-term physical and mental health outcomes. We predicted that neutral death acceptance would be associated with less increase in depression during early widowhood (when confronted with loss-oriented stressors), whereas perceived control would predict depressive symptom decline during later widowhood (when adapting to controllable restoration-oriented stressors). Older adults (N = 265) reported on neutral death acceptance, perceived control, and depression before widowhood and on depression 0.5, 1.5, and 4.0 years after the death of their spouse. Bilinear spline growth modeling revealed that, on average, depressive symptoms increased from before to 0.5 years after spouse death and fell from 0.5 to 4.0 years after spouse death. Neutral death acceptance predicted a smaller increase in depression from before to 0.5 years after spouse death, as well as a smaller subsequent decrease in depression from 0.5 to 4.0 years after spouse death. Perceived control predicted a larger decrease in depression from 0.5 to 4.0 years after spouse death. Neutral death acceptance and perceived control had unique associations with resilience and recovery throughout early and later widowhood. These variables may be fruitful targets in interventions for depression throughout the full course of widowhood.     

Correlates of gender role orientation during pregnancy and the postpartum

This study was designed to examine the relationship between gender role orientation and psychological adjustment during pregnancy and the postpartum period in a large sample of French-speaking Caucasian mothers. Gender role was assessed with the Bem Sex Role Inventory, which classifies subjects into four categories: androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated. A discriminant analysis showed a relationship between androgyny and the following measures of psychological adaptation: self-esteem, satisfaction with social support, and level of apprehension toward perinatal stressors. The masculine gender role was linked with self-esteem, work involvement, age, and severity of perinatal stress. No relationship was found between gender role and the level of antenatal or postnatal depressive symptomatology. Stress, marital support, and social support were among the predictors of postpartum depression, which underlined the importance of taking these variables into account when studying the well-being of mothers during the postnatal period. Results are discussed in light of previous literature on the association between gender role and motherhood. The limitations of Bem's model and inventory are also considered.     

SEX DIFFERENCES AND DEPRESSION IN PUERTO RICO

Sex differences in rates of depressive disorders and depressive symptomatology, as measured by the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, are examined for an island-wide probability sample of Puerto Rico. Consistent with previous research, depression is significantly more prevalent in Puerto Rican women than men. Risk factors associated with depressive symptomatology are examined from a sex-role perspective. The results of multiple regression analyses show that even after demographic, health and marital and employment status variables are controlled, women continue to be at higher risk of depressive symptomatology than men. These results are interpreted within a cultural and sex-role perspective.     

Psychosocial predictors of the short-term course and outcome of major depression: a longitudinal study of a nonclinical sample with recent-onset episodes

Three variables have been hypothesized to play important roles in prolonging the course of depressive episodes: a ruminative response style, significant interpersonal relationships, and childhood adversity. The authors examined whether these variables predicted the short-term course of major depressive disorder (MDD). Participants (n = 84) were college students with a recent-onset major depressive episode. Assessments included several interview and self-report measures, and data on interpersonal relationships were obtained from close confidants. Follow-up interviews were conducted 6 months later. After controlling for baseline severity, harsh discipline in childhood significantly predicted mean level of depression across the follow-up and level of depression at follow-up. Harsh discipline was also significantly associated with relapse but not with recovery. After controlling for baseline severity, rumination and the interpersonal variables did not predict the outcome of MDD.