课堂情境与任务难度对学业求助之影响的研究

本实验以初二年级学生为被试,研究了课堂情境、任务难度、学业成绩以及性别对学业求助的影响。结果表明：(1)任务关注的课堂情境比自我关注的课堂情境导致更多的求助行为,求助方式上,则倾向于工具性求助。(2)完成难度适中学习任务的学生比完成高难度学习任务的学生表现出更多的求助行为,求助方式上,则倾向于工具性求助。(3)在任何条件下,成绩好的学生都比成绩差的学生更善于作工具性求助。(4)从总体来看,初二学生的求助行为不存在性别差异。但在自我关注的课堂中,男生比女生表现出更多的回避求助。     

不同自尊者在赌博情境下的风险规避行为

为了考察不同自尊水平的个体在赌博情境下的风险规避行为,263名大学生被试同时完成外显Rosenberg量表、内隐联想测验和21点赌博游戏。实验结果发现,(1)随着风险的增加,所有被试都表现出风险规避;(2)在高外显自尊水平的个体中,低内隐自尊水平个体比高内隐自尊水平个体表现出更多的风险规避行为;在低内隐自尊的个体中,高外显自尊个体比低外显自尊个体表现出更多的风险规避行为。风险规避行为间接地反映出个体的防御倾向,结果提示,在风险情境中,高外显低内隐自尊个体表现出较高的自我防御倾向。     

儿童在不同卷入情境下基于资源价值的分配行为特点：内群体偏爱的作用

为探究不同卷入情境下儿童基于资源价值的分配行为特点以及内群体偏爱在其中的作用, 呈现给儿童两种实验情境：实验1, 134名5~8岁儿童在第一方情境下与来自内、外群体的一名儿童分配不同价值的物品, 结果发现7~8岁儿童公平分配比例与5~6岁儿童无显著差异; 实验2, 130名5~8岁儿童在第三方情境下给来自特定群体的两名儿童分配资源, 结果发现7~8岁儿童公平分配比例显著高于5~6岁儿童。两个实验均发现儿童的分配行为表现出内群体偏爱, 5~6岁儿童比7~8岁儿童更明显。并且, 5~6岁女生比男生有更明显的内群体偏爱, 但在7~8岁组无性别差异。此外, 只有7~8岁儿童的公平分配行为表现出卷入情境上的差异, 他们在第三方情境比第一方情境下更能做出公平分配, 但5~6岁儿童的公平分配行为并无情境差异。综上可见, 比起年幼儿童, 年长儿童基于资源价值的公平行为发展得更好, 并且在两种卷入情境下受内群体偏爱的影响均更小。     

关于学业求助的研究综述

学业求助作为一种与成就有关的学习策略引起了西方学者的高度重视。研究表明,自尊心或能力知觉与学业求助有密切关系,低自尊心的学生更不愿求助。目标取向对学业求助也有重要影响。任务卷入比自我卷入导致更多的适应性求助。作者从自我调控学习理论的角度对学业求助的意义作了讨论。     

个人和团体任务情境中不同心理卷入强度对个体决策行为的影响

使用被试间实验设计,分别研究了个体和团体两种不同的任务情境中,心理卷入强度高低对决策效果的影响。结果表明：（1）无论个体还是团体任务情境,不同的心理卷入度的决策者,决策结果差异显著;高心理卷入情境下,决策者的决策更为客观和公平。（2）团体任务高心理卷入情境下,学生对自己小组的评价和对其他小组的评价差异不显著。（3）团体任务情境中成员的决策结果比个体任务情境的更为客观。     

运用赌博任务测查不同攻击/受欺类别儿童的情感决策过程

攻击行为认知研究存在的一个重要问题是忽视情感对儿童认知加工的影响。考虑了情绪－认知整合过程的儿童行为决策更能全面而真实地反映社会信息加工情境下的攻击/受欺行为卷入过程。情感决策的赌博任务范式被认为能诱发类似于个人真实生活决策的表现,本研究运用计算机程序编制的标准赌博任务,以过程的视角考察了不同攻击/受欺儿童的情感决策特点。结果发现,不同类型儿童的有利-不利选择净分数、对有利-不利选择及奖惩频数的决策偏向存在显著差异。研究结果反映未卷入儿童在赌博任务上的整体表现优于其他类型儿童,攻击-受欺儿童仅次于未卷入儿童;直接攻击、攻击-受欺、未卷入儿童呈现惩罚定向的决策风格,但这三类儿童也表现出截然不同的趋势。     

利/害条件下归纳推理的心理效应分离

研究设计了两类包含内容的归纳推理任务, 一类是对获得收益的可能性的推理; 另一类是避免伤害的推理。实验显示, 不同内容的归纳推理结果有显著差异。其中, 避免伤害的归纳推理表现出将伤害可能过度推延的特点; 而获得收益的归纳推理则表现出对收益可能推延不足。此外, 不同的自我卷入水平——自我卷入式推理或者非自我卷入式推理——也会对推理产生显著影响。在避害条件下, 自我卷入式推理比非自我卷入式推理表现出更强烈的过度推延的特点; 在获利条件下, 自我卷入式推理比非自我卷入式推理表现出更严重的推延不足。研究经过分析提出, 这种差异可能暗示了归纳推理的领域特殊性特征。     

损益框架和损益概率对不同年级儿童风险决策的影响

摘 要 为探讨任务框架和自信水平对不同年级儿童风险决策的影响,采用3（年级：二/四/六年级）×2（任务框架：获益/损失）×2（自信水平：过度自信/自信不足）的组间实验设计,在情境性实验任务中探查177名儿童风险决策的发展特点。结果表明：（1）不同年级儿童在风险决策中表现出不同的发展特点,二年级儿童比六年级儿童更倾向于冒险,而四年级前后则是儿童风险决策发展的关键期、转折期;（2）儿童风险决策中存在框架效应,表现出偏好反转现象,与在获益情境下更偏好于保守决策相比,在损失情境下的儿童更偏好冒险决策;（3）自信水平并未对儿童的风险决策产生影响。     

幼儿自我调控的中日比较及其跨文化分析

实验以中日166名4、5岁幼儿为被试(其中中国幼儿84名,日本幼儿82名),采用故事法比较了中日幼儿在故事情境中的自我调控反应。结果表明:(1)中日幼儿自我调控的反应方式因交往对象的不同表现出了差异。在幼儿与成人的矛盾情境中,日本幼儿比中国幼儿表现出了更多的自我抑制反应,在幼儿与同伴的矛盾情境中,日本幼儿比中国幼儿表现出了更多的自我主张反应;不论在幼儿与成人的矛盾情境中还是在幼儿与同伴的矛盾情境中,中国幼儿都比日本幼儿表现出了更多的依赖成人反应。(2)中日幼儿自我调控的反应方式因情境类型的不同没有表现出差异。不论在幼儿与同伴的矛盾情境中,还是在幼儿与同伴的非矛盾情境中,日本幼儿比中国幼儿表现出了更多的自我主张反应,中国幼儿比日本幼儿表现出了更多的依赖成人和冲动行为反应。     

物质主义价值观与时间压力对个体风险决策的影响

本研究考察物质主义价值观和时间压力对个体风险决策的影响。根据被试在物质主义问卷上的得分,以27%为标准筛选出高低物质主义倾向被试,采用有无时间压力情境下的爱荷华赌博任务和仿真气球冒险任务对高低物质主义价值观被试的风险决策行为进行研究。实验结果显示,在两种决策任务中,物质主义倾向和时间压力间均存在显著的交互作用,有时间压力的情境下高物质主义倾向个体比低物质主义倾向个体表现出更多的风险寻求,无时间压力情境下,高低物质主义倾向个体在风险决策上无显著差异。时间压力增加了高物质主义倾向个体的风险寻求。时间压力对风险决策的影响与决策任务有关,在仿真气球冒险任务中,时间压力使决策者表现出现风险规避;在爱荷华赌博任务中,时间压力使决策者表现出风险寻求。     

Determinants of help seeking behaviour: The effects of helper's similarity,task centrality and recipient's self esteem

The present experiment was concerned with the way in which the characteristics of the helper the task and the recipient affect the willingness to seek help. In line with past theory and research it was reasoned that seeking help would be most threatening when one needs help on an ego - central task, and the helper is perceived as similar to oneself. Consequently, individuals were expected to seek least help under these conditions. Further it was expected that individuals who enjoy a high self esteem would be more sensitive to this self threat and seek less help under these self threatening conditions than would individuals who have a low self esteem. The experiment consisted of a 2 (similar versus dissimilar helper) times 2 (ego-central versus non central task) times 2 (high versus low self esteem subjects) between subjects design. Subjects worked on a difficult anagram task, and their actual help seeking behaviour served as a dependent measure. The findings support the experimental hypotheses. The conceptual and applied implications of these findings are discussed.     

Overcoming ego depletion: the influence of exemplar priming on self‐control performance

Self‐regulation research suggested that active self‐control depends on a limited resource. Therefore the capacity for self‐control is lower among people who already exercised control, a phenomenon labelled as ego depletion. This experiment examines whether priming of a persistent person exemplar may help to overcome ego depletion. Half of the participants engaged in a demanding self‐control task (solving extremely difficult labyrinths) whereas the other half took part in a task that demanded little self‐control (solving easy labyrinths). Then, half of the participants received a person exemplar prime related to persistence; the other half received a neutral prime. Finally, participants' persistence on a subsequent self‐control task (squeezing a handgrip) was measured. The effect of a person exemplar prime on a subsequent self‐control task depended on initial self‐control demands. Participants who exercised high initial self‐control and were then presented with a persistent exemplar prime showed assimilation. Their handgrip persistence was higher than the persistence of participants who received a neutral prime. Under conditions of low initial self‐control the opposite pattern was found. A persistent person prime resulted in contrast and resulted in lower handgrip performance as compared to those who received a neutral prime. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

成就目标、社会目标、自我效能及学习成绩与学业求助的关系

本研究以152名初中二年级学生为被试,采用问卷法研究了成就目标、社会目标、自我效能及学习成绩与学业求助的关系。结果表明：(1)自我取向的成就目标的确可以区分出自我一趋向型目标和自我一逃避目标,它们对学业求助的影响模式是不同的,自我一逃避型目标对学业求助有更大的负面作用。(2)社会目标与学业求助有显著关系,支持本研究的假设。(3)自我效能低及学习成绩差的学生更不愿求助,支持脆弱假说。     

Exposure to nature counteracts aggression after depletion

Acts of self‐control are more likely to fail after previous exertion of self‐control, known as the ego depletion effect. Research has shown that depleted participants behave more aggressively than non‐depleted participants, especially after being provoked. Although exposure to nature (e.g., a walk in the park) has been predicted to replenish resources common to executive functioning and self‐control, the extent to which exposure to nature may counteract the depletion effect on aggression has yet to be determined. The present study investigated the effects of exposure to nature on aggression following depletion. Aggression was measured by the intensity of noise blasts participants delivered to an ostensible opponent in a competition reaction‐time task. As predicted, an interaction occurred between depletion and environmental manipulations for provoked aggression. Specifically, depleted participants behaved more aggressively in response to provocation than non‐depleted participants in the urban condition. However, provoked aggression did not differ between depleted and non‐depleted participants in the natural condition. Moreover, within the depletion condition, participants in the natural condition had lower levels of provoked aggression than participants in the urban condition. This study suggests that a brief period of nature exposure may restore self‐control and help depleted people regain control over aggressive urges.

     

The effects of sex-role ideology,self-esteem,and expected future interactions with an audience on male help seeking

Male subjects, purportedly being observed by an audience, received failure feedback while working on a task (rating dialogues for neuroticism). Help was readily available, from a male or female assistant, and the primary dependent variable was whether or not subjects requested help. Embarrassment was postulated as the major inhibitor of help seeking in this situation. Self-report measures of embarrassment and perceived accuracy were taken throughout the session. The independent variables were: task centrality (sex-role appropriateness), sex of assistant, expectation of future interaction with the audience, self-esteem, and sex-role ideology (“traditional” vs “feminist” beliefs). The principal results for help seeking were: high esteem traditional subjects sought help less frequently on the central (male) task and more frequently sought help on the peripheral (female) task; feminists did not differ in help seeking according to sex of task. Increased embarrassment was not generally associated with inhibition of help seeking. In fact, there was a trend for high embarrassment to be reported immediately before help was sought. To explain these results, two forms of embarrassment are distinguished — the embarrassment due to continued failure, which should result in seeking help to bring about success, and anticipated embarrassment involved in the act of seeking help, which should inhibit help-seeking behavior.     

The Bright Side of Threatened Narcissism: Improved Performance Following Ego Threat

Narcissistic individuals have highly positive self‐views and overestimate their abilities. Consequently, they tend to react aggressively whenever they receive information that does not match their high self‐views (ego threat). We argue that focusing on aggression merely portrays a one‐sided view of narcissistic individuals and the manner in which they counter ego threats. We propose that following ego threat, narcissism can also fuel performance. In four studies, we measured nonclinical narcissism and allocated Dutch undergraduate university students (N₁ = 175, N₂ = 142, N₃ = 159, N₄ = 174) to either an ego threat or a no ego threat condition. Ego threat involved negative feedback (Studies 1–2) or threat to uniqueness (Studies 3–4). We measured participants’ intentions to complete a challenging task (Study 1), their creative performance (Studies 2–3), and their performance on an anagram task (Study 4). Across Studies 1–3, we consistently found that following ego threat, higher nonclinical narcissism was associated with greater willingness to perform tasks that enabled demonstration of abilities and enhanced creative performance. These results were confirmed using a meta‐analysis. However, anagram performance was not enhanced following ego threat. We provide additional analyses that might help explain this. Our findings thus reveal a more positive side to the way narcissistic individuals manage threats to their self‐image.     

Ego-involving and frame of reference effects of tracking on elementary school students’ motivational orientations and help seeking in math class

The author extrapolated from both achievement goal and reference group theories to predict that relative to untracked settings, tracking (a) highlights the importance of ability relative to others and will thus increase students’ ego orientations and reluctance to ask the teacher for help and (b) creates different contexts for social comparison and will thus undermine help seeking among high achievers but may enhance help seeking among low achievers. A quasi-experimental study compared students at ages 10–12 in elementary schools that either tracked students only in math (N  =  337) or did not track students in any subject (N  =  594). Students completed self-report measures of achievement goals and help seeking in math class. Results confirmed that, over all levels of ability, tracking increased ego and work avoidance goals and did not affect task goals. Tracking undermined help seeking among high achievers, but did not enhance help seeking among low achievers. In addition to revealing some hitherto unstudied costs of tracking, the results highlight the importance of considering grouping practices in research on student motivation and strategies and of applying theory and research on student motivation to understanding the influences of tracking.

Latino and Latina Adolescents' Help‐seeking Behaviors and Attitudes Regarding Suicide Compared to Peers with Recent Suicidal Ideation

Although Latinas have consistently reported higher rates of suicidal behavior for the past 20 years (CDC, 1996), there is a dearth of information regarding their help‐seeking attitudes and behaviors when dealing with distress and suicide. Associations between adolescents' ideation and help‐seeking from adults were different for non‐Hispanic Whites and Latinos from 14 high schools (N = 4,983). Among females, ideators and Latinas reported lower levels of help‐seeking attitudes than nonideators and non‐Hispanic Whites. Males showed interaction effects of ideation by race/ethnicity on help‐seeking. Within sex by race/ethnicity, differences showed that while non‐Hispanic White students reported consistent differences between suicidal ideation and no reported suicidal ideation, Latinos were more similar between these groups, particularly with having support from friends and family to seek help from adults. Research should clarify how culture contributes to decreased help‐seeking norms among those with suicidal ideation.     

The modality effect of ego depletion: Auditory task modality reduces ego depletion

An initial act of self‐control that impairs subsequent acts of self‐control is called ego depletion. The ego depletion phenomenon has been observed consistently. The modality effect refers to the effect of the presentation modality on the processing of stimuli. The modality effect was also robustly found in a large body of research. However, no study to date has examined the modality effects of ego depletion. This issue was addressed in the current study. In Experiment 1, after all participants completed a handgrip task, one group's participants completed a visual attention regulation task and the other group's participants completed an auditory attention regulation task, and then all participants again completed a handgrip task. The ego depletion phenomenon was observed in both the visual and the auditory attention regulation task. Moreover, participants who completed the visual task performed worse on the handgrip task than participants who completed the auditory task, which indicated that there was high ego depletion in the visual task condition. In Experiment 2, participants completed an initial task that either did or did not deplete self‐control resources, and then they completed a second visual or auditory attention control task. The results indicated that depleted participants performed better on the auditory attention control task than the visual attention control task. These findings suggest that altering task modality may reduce ego depletion.     

Dissimilar effects of task‐relevant and interpersonal threat on independent–interdependent self‐construal in individuals with high self‐esteem

Previous research has indicated that individuals with high trait self‐esteem (HSEs) become more independent and less interdependent after experiencing a task‐relevant threat. However, these studies have not investigated other sources of ego threats, such as interpersonal threats. Therefore, the moderating effects of the degree of trait self‐esteem on task‐relevant and interpersonal ego threats were investigated in relation to independent, or interdependent self‐construal. It was predicted that in HSEs, the level of task‐relevant stress would be positively–negatively related to their independence–interdependence, whereas the level of interpersonal stress would be negatively–positively related to their independence–interdependence. In individuals with low trait self‐esteem (LSEs), the two types of stresses and independent–interdependent self‐construal may not have a significant relationship. We conducted a questionnaire survey with undergraduates. Correlational analysis of the results indicated that in HSEs, greater task‐relevant stress was related to heightened independence, whereas greater interpersonal stress had the opposite effect, indicating lower independence and heightened interdependence. However, these stresses were not related to the self‐construal of LSEs. These findings suggest that task‐relevant and interpersonal threat could have differential effects on independent and interdependent self‐construal for HSEs, but not in LSEs.