Acquisition and transfer of conceptual learning by normals and retardates: the effects of modeling, verbal cues, and reinforcement

The present study compared the effects of modeling, verbal cues, and reinforcement on conceptual learning of normals and retardates. Performance on both original learning tasks and a transfer task was examined. The results indicated that, relative to a control group, modeling alone, modeling plus verbal cues, and exposure to the completed task plus verbal cues facilitated original conceptual learning. Furthermore, modeling plus verbal cues was more effective in reducing errors than modeling alone. Original learning was not affected by tangible reinforcement, social reinforcement, or IQ level. No significant effects were found for a transfer task.     

Theory and data on developmental changes in novelty preference

The present study was designed to investigate the predictive value of an informational analysis of vicarious consequences. Two levels of amount of vicarious consequences (complete, partial) were varied with three types of vicarious consequences (reward, punishment, reward-punishment). Each of six groups of preschool age boys and girls observed an adult male model receive one of the combinations of amount and type of vicarious consequences for his choices from a commodity preference series. A seventh group of boys and girls observed the model receive no consequences for his choices. After observing the model, each subject was asked to make his own choices from the commodity preference series and to recall the choices which the model made. In contradiction to the predictions of an informational analysis of vicarious consequences, the amount of vicarious consequences did not differentially affect the recall of modeled behavior while the type of vicarious consequences did have a differential effect.     

Cognitive schemas and thought as determinants of attitude change

It was hypothesized that thought would result in greater attitude polarization than distraction and that this effect would be more pronounced with better developed schemas (naive theories) for thinking about the attitude object. In Study 1, it was reasoned that persons have better developed schemas (e.g., implicit personality theories) for thinking about individuals than for thinking about groups. In Study 2, it was reasoned that men have better developed schemas for thinking about football and women have better developed schemas for thinking about women's fashions. In both studies, the hypothesis was significantly confirmed.     

Eye movements of children, adults, and elderly persons during inspection of dot patterns

The effectiveness of three fading and two nonfading procedures were compared in training kindergarten children on an oddity problem in which shape was the relevant dimension. The fading procedures employed supplementary cues which were gradually eliminated during training. The cues included either saturating the odd stimulus with a red color, saturating the nonodd stimuli with a red color, or varying the degree of illumination of the nonodd stimuli. One nonfading group received training on a structurally simpler oddity problem prior to transfer to a more complex oddity problem, and a second nonfading group received the standard oddity training procedure. While significant differences in acquisition were not obtained between training groups, the oddity task performance and the results from a test of dimensional observation revealed that the fading procedures were differentially effective in transferring Ss′ observation from the dimension of the fading cue to that relevant for solution of the oddity problem.     

Some attitudinal and cognitive consequences of thought

A “reinterpretation of inconsistent cognitions” explanation of the previous finding that thought about an object tends to polarize attitudes toward that object was tested. Under the assumption that ambiguity facilitates reinterpretation, ambiguity of inconsistent information and opportunity for thought were manipulated. Consistent with expectations, (a) thought resulted in attitude polarization and this effect was increased with ambiguity (p < .01) and (b) evaluation (interpretation) of the inconsistent information varied as a function of thought (p < .05) and ambiguity (p < .01).     

An examination of disciplinary procedures with children

In Experiment I the effect of the contingent application of negative attention (a verbal reprimand plus a brief period in which the authority person glares intently at the child) and repeated commands on the noncompliant behavior of children was examined. Thirty-two mother-child pairs served as subjects. The results indicated that negative attention decreased noncompliance whereas repeated commands did not. In Experiment II the effectiveness of negative attention, isolation, ignoring, and a combination of procedures (the alternate use of isolation, ignoring, and negative attention with the same subject) in reducing noncompliance and maintaining it at a low level during a recovery period was examined. Twenty-eight mother-child pairs served as subjects. The results indicated that each of the four disciplinary procedures reduced noncompliance. However, negative attention was associated with less off-task behavior than the isolation and combination procedures when discipline was being imposed and a lower level of noncompliance than ignoring during recovery, whereas the combination condiiton was the only procedure that maintained noncompliance during recovery at the treatment level.     

The role of a guessing strategy in the Bransford-Franks paradigm

Within the framework of the Bransford-Franks paradigm, variations of two memory models and a guessing strategy hypothesis were evaluated using concepts that differed in the number of atomic units each contained (‘concept size’). Results showed that, though the precise patterns of recognition for concept size were not completely consistent with any of the explanations, the changes in the patterns across concept size agreed with the guessing strategy hypothesis. It was argued that the subject's interpretation of the guessing strategy is likely to be a similar but simpler version of the experimenter-theorist's formal model, with the consequence that, while less sensitive to the finer details of the formal model, it will still reflect coarser differences.     

Development of cerebral dominance: dichotic listening asymmetry in normal and learning-disabled children

The magnitude of the dichotic right-ear advantage was assessed in 48 normal and 48 learning-disabled children representing an age range of approximately 5 years. All subjects were matched according to age, sex, and handedness. An analysis of results indicated a significant right-ear advantage in both the normal and learning-disabled children, but revealed no developmental trends for either group. Differences observed in the performance of the learning-disabled and normal children may reflect variability in selective attention rather than differences in the degree of cerebral lateralization. These results suggest a need for a reconceptualization of the causative factors affecting children with learning disorders and lend support to the notion that cerebral lateralization is not a developmental phenomenon.     

Dichotic listening ear asymmetry: Patterns of longitudinal development

Dichotic listening research with children has continued to be prevalent although numerous authors have described both theoretical and methodological limitations with traditional dichotic listening free-recall paradigms. The present research adds to this growing skepticism by reanalyzing two major longitudinal studies of children's ear asymmetries. These two studies, based in different countries (United States, Holland), utilized highly similar paradigms (free-recall digits), subjects (males), and age levels (kindergarten and second and fifth grade). The questions of ear advantage development, patterns of ear advantages, and the relationship between dichotic listening performance and reading skills are addressed from the multiple statistical methodologies represented in the literature. From these analyses, support for all of the major hypotheses regarding the developmental patterns of dichotic listening performances could be obtained from the same data samples. The use of traditional free-recall dichotic listening paradigms are not recommended for use with children. The implications for future research are discussed.     

Training school psychologists in neuropsychological assessment: Current practices and trends

Directors of school psychology programs at the Master's, sixth-year and doctoral levels were surveyed as to their program's degree of emphasis in neuropsychological screening and assessment. Despite variability according to program level, directors identified a need for training in these areas. This was particularly evident at the doctoral level, where greater flexibility exists in designing a student's program of studies. The results of this survey support the notion that training in neuropsychological screening and assessment techniques is appropriate in the preparation of specialists in the area of school psychology.     

Childhood obesity and social stigma: What we know and what we don't know

Evidence for the development of social stigma associated with body build in childhood, specifically obesity, was critically reviewed. Although there is overwhelming evidence to suggest that children hold a positive stereotype toward a mesomorph (normal) build when compared to other builds, and that this preference increases with age, studies have not convincingly shown a negative stereotype toward the endomorph or obese body build. Furthermore, the belief that obese children are generally discriminated against is without empirical verification. Specifically, it is unclear from the various empirical studies that examine self-esteem and body image, that the psychological consequences of obesity are debilitating. Studies which have noted disturbances in self-concept and body image have sampled clinical populations (youngsters seeking medically supervised reduction); and those studies which have examined nonclinical populations have not found psychological difficulties. Finally, potential moderators such as facial attractiveness × body build interactions, situational contexts, and degree of obesity are examined and new research directions are discussed.     

Holland's theory: Stability of avocational interests

The generality and stability of Holland's vocational choice model was tested by examining preference for avocational (leisure) activity. Based on their responses to the Strong Vocational Interest Blank, college students were placed into one of the six Holland groups. They also indicated preferred leisure activities on questionnaires that were administered at a 9-year interval. Six hypotheses were developed relating Holland groups to particular types of avocational behavior. For example, it was predicted that the Artistic group would be more active in cultural affairs and that the Enterprising group would prefer reading political and economic magazines. The initial test of these hypotheses during late adolescence confirmed five of the six predictions. A follow-up 9 years later confirmed all six hypotheses. These results provide some support for the notion that individuals self-select a variety of situations. Also, the relationships between Holland scales and leisure activity and possible implications for the vocational choice model are discussed.     

Polydipsia induced by a schedule of brain stimulation reinforcement

Rats pressed a lever for a signaled brain stimulation reinforcement on either fixed-interval or fixed-ratio schedules. Both schedules induced polydipsia, with a median water intake of 22.5 ml (about four times the control level) in 3-hr sessions. The stimulation did not directly elicit drinking or other behaviors. In a second experiment, two out of four rats became polydipsic during extinction following a continuous schedule of brain stimulation reinforcement. The results were compared with previous attempts to induce polydipsia with a schedule of brain stimulation reinforcement and were discussed in terms of polydipsia as a model of human “compulsive” behaviors.     

Some effects of task relevance and friendship on helping: You don't always help the one you like

It was hypothesized that being outperformed on a task that is relevant to one's self-definition is threatening to self-esteem, and that this threat is greater when one is outperformed by a friend rather than by a stranger. When another's performance threatens self-esteem, persons will be less likely to help the other by making the task easy. To test these hypotheses, 52 friendship pairs participated with strangers in a word identification task described either as a measure of important skills (high relevance) or as a game (low relevance). Participants chose clues for both a friend and a stranger to use in identifying target words. As predicted, they gave harder clues under high-relevance than under low-relevance conditions. Moreover, they gave harder clues to strangers than to friends under low-relevance conditions, but gave harder clues to friends than to strangers under high-relevance conditions.     

Effects of two types of response-contingent time-out on compliance and oppositional behavior of children.

The present study examined the effects of two time-out (TO) procedures, within-room and out-of-room, on compliance and oppositional behavior. Subjects were 24 nonclinic 5-year old children and their mothers. Mother-child pairs were assigned to one of three groups (within-room time-out, out-of-room time-out, or control) and observed in a laboratory setting under each of three experimental conditions: pretraining, training, and posttraining. The results indicated that, relative to the control group, both out-of-room and within-room TO reduced oppositional behavior and increased compliance. The two time-out procedures were equally effective in changing the two target behaviors; however, the within-room approach required significantly more administrations of time-out than the out-of-room technique.