Early and late mismatch negativity elicited by words and speech-like stimuli in children

In auditory perception the brain's attentional and preattentional mechanisms select certain stimuli for preferential processing and filter out irrelevant input. This study investigated nonattentive auditory processing in children. Event-related potentials (ERPs) provide a means to study neural correlates related to language and speech-sound processing. Mismatch negativity (MMN) is an ERP wave that indicates attention-independent perceptual change detection. In this study cortical ERPs were elicited by complex tones, naturally spoken words, and pseudowords, with each stimulus type containing equal acoustical elements. Tones elicited a bifurcated mismatch negativity (MMN), with early MMN (peaking at 150-200 ms) being more dominant. On the other hand, words elicited a strong late MMN, peaking at about 400-450 ms after stimulus onset. The MMN wave form was significantly weaker for pseudowords than for words. The late MMN wave, especially for word differences, was found to reflect summating MMN generators and memory trace formation on gestalt bases. Results suggest that the auditory processing, even nonattended, is highly associated with the cognitive meaning of the stimuli.     

简单心算中数学学习困难儿童的数字距离效应

采用事件相关电位(ERP)方法,以阿拉伯数字的简单心算为任务,考察数学学习困难儿童(MD)的数字距离效应。行为数据的结果表明:MD组没有出现数字距离效应,对照组儿童出现了数字距离效应。事件相关电位数据显示:与对照组相比,MD组N270的潜伏期更长;两组被试在N270的波幅和潜伏期上都没有表现出数字距离效应。研究结果表明:MD儿童对数量信息的空间表征存在缺陷。     

同龄效应的类别化-个体化模型

针对面孔认知偏好的类别化-个体化模型,探讨该模型中的知觉经验、加工方式和动机水平对本龄效应的影响。结果表明增加对异龄面孔的知觉经验、个体化加工异龄面孔及提高加工异龄面孔的动机都能有效改善对异龄面孔的再认,减少本龄效应量。这说明本龄效应遵循类别化-个体化模型,且在类别化-个体化模型中本龄效应与本族效应加工原理相仿。。     

Sport stacking activities in school children's motor skill development

This study examined the impact of a 12-wk. sport stacking intervention on reaction time (RT), manual dexterity, and hand-eye coordination in elementary school-aged children. 80 Grade 2 students participated in a 15-min. sport stacking practice session every school day for 12 wk., and were tested on psychomotor performance improvement. Tests for choice RT, manual dexterity, and photoelectric rotary pursuit tracking were conducted pre- and post-intervention for both experimental group (n = 36) and the controls (n = 44) who did no sport stacking. Students who had the intervention showed a greater improvement in two-choice RT. No other group difference was found. Such sport stacking activities may facilitate children's central processing and perceptual-motor integration.     

The Bender-Gestalt psychopathology scale: failure to infer validity in a school-aged sample

The concurrent validity of Hutt's (1977) empirical psychopathology scale of the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test was evaluated among three groups of younger school-aged children within the 7-to-10- year age range (M = 109.1): adjustment disordered, conduct disordered, and nonclinical controls (n = 40/group). Excellent interscorer reliability was achieved with approximately 2 hr of self-study of the scoring manual. Although the conduct-disordered group was significantly more immature on Koppitz' Developmental Scoring System, there were no significant differences among groups on the psychopathology scale when visual-motor development was covaried (M = 50.5). This was an unexpected result, given Hutt's initial validation study among school-aged children. The psychopathology scale was not inferred to be valid among adolescents in the only known concurrent validation study. Pending supportive validation research, the psychopathology scale should not be employed in the clinical assessment of younger school-aged children.     

The Bender-Gestalt Psychopathology Scale: Failure to Infer Validity in a School-Aged Sample

The concurrent validity of Hutt's (1977) empirical psychopathology scale of the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test was evaluated among three groups of younger school-aged children within the 7-to-10- year age range (M = 109.1): adjustment disordered, conduct disordered, and nonclinical controls (n = 40/group). Excellent interscorer reliability was achieved with approximately 2 hr of self-study of the scoring manual. Although the conduct-disordered group was significantly more immature on Koppitz' Developmental Scoring System, there were no significant differences among groups on the psychopathology scale when visual-motor development was covaried (M = 50.5). This was an unexpected result, given Hutt's initial validation study among school-aged children. The psychopathology scale was not inferred to be valid among adolescents in the only known concurrent validation study. Pending supportive validation research, the psychopathology scale should not be employed in the clinical assessment of younger school-aged children.     

投稿—基于Stroop效应和SNARC效应的大数量自动加工研究

在数字自动加工研究中,已有研究的实验对象一般局限在小数量数字上,大数量数字加工中是否也存在自动激活现象尚未获得实验证据。本研究以大数量为研究对象,以Stroop效应和SNARC效应为自动加工的指标,实验一发现,无论是数字语义比较还是数字个数比较,都出现了典型的数字Stroop效应;实验二的结果表明,在大数量个数的比较任务中存在SNARC效应和顺序效应。由实验结果初步推断,在大数量加工中也存在无关维度数量信息的自动激活。     

小学一年级数感不良儿童的筛查与动态干预

首先编制测查小学一年级儿童数感发展水平的测验, 以筛查出数感发展不良儿童并进行数量转换和数量估计的动态干预。将数感不良儿童分为干预组(29人)和控制组(27人), 并以数感正常儿童作为对照组(40人), 以比较干预训练对儿童数感水平和与之密切相关的计算流畅性的促进作用。同时进一步考查数感和计算流畅性的作用方向。结果发现：(1)所编制的儿童数感发展测验信效度良好, 能有效评估一年级儿童的数感水平; (2)数感不良儿童经干预后, 其数感水平较控制组有了明显改善, 计算流畅性水平也显著提高, 甚至达到正常组儿童的水平; (3)数感对计算流畅性有明显的预测作用, 是计算流畅性的基础。     

The earliest electrophysiological correlate of visual awareness?

To examine the neural correlates and timing of human visual awareness, we recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) in two experiments while the observers were detecting a grey dot that was presented near subjective threshold. ERPs were averaged for conscious detections of the stimulus (hits) and nondetections (misses) separately. Our results revealed that hits, as compared to misses, showed a negativity around 180-350 ms at occipital and posterior temporal sites. It was followed by a positive wave after 400-500 ms, peaking at parietal sites. These correlates were not affected by a manipulation of attention. The early negativity, called 'visual awareness negativity' (VAN), may be a general, primary electrophysiological correlate of visual awareness. The present data show that it can be observed in response to appearance of a stimulus in visual awareness and that it generalizes across different manipulations of stimulus visibility.     

The contribution of working memory to children's mathematical word problem solving

The study explored the contribution of working memory to mathematical word problem solving in children. A total of 69 children in grades 2, 3 and 4 were given measures of mathematical problem solving, reading, arithmetical calculation, fluid IQ and working memory. Multiple regression analyses showed that three measures associated with the central executive and one measure associated with the phonological loop contributed unique variance to mathematical problem solving when the influence of reading, age and IQ were controlled for in the analysis. In addition, the animal dual‐task, verbal fluency and digit span task continued to contribute unique variance when the effects of arithmetical calculation in addition to reading, fluid IQ, and age were controlled for. These findings demonstrate that the phonological loop and a number of central executive functions (shifting, co‐ordination of concurrent processing and storage of information, accessing information from long‐term memory) contribute to mathematical problem solving in children. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Basic numerical capacities and prevalence of developmental dyscalculia: the Havana Survey

The association of enumeration and number comparison capacities with arithmetical competence was examined in a large sample of children from 2nd to 9th grades. It was found that efficiency on numerical capacities predicted separately more than 25% of the variance in the individual differences on a timed arithmetical test, and this occurred for both younger and older learners. These capacities were also significant predictors of individual variations in an untimed curriculum-based math achievement test and on the teacher scores of math performance over developmental time. Based on these findings, these numerical capacities were used for estimating the prevalence and gender ratio of basic numerical deficits and developmental dyscalculia (DD) over the grade range defined above (N = 11,652 children). The extent to which DD affects the population with poor ability on calculation was also examined. For this purpose, the prevalence and gender ratio of arithmetical dysfluency (AD) were estimated in the same cohort. The estimated prevalence of DD was 3.4%, and the male:female ratio was 4:1. However, the prevalence of AD was almost 3 times as high (9.35%), and no gender differences were found (male:female ratio = 1.07:1). Basic numerical deficits affect 4.54% of school-age population and affect more boys than girls (2.4:1). The differences between the corresponding estimates were highly significant (α < .01). Based on these contrastive findings, it is concluded that DD, defined as a defective sense of numerosity, could be a distinctive disorder that affects only a portion of children with AD.     

Individual differences in trajectories of arithmetical development in typically achieving 5- to 7-year-olds

The arithmetical performance of typically achieving 5- to 7-year-olds (N = 29) was measured at four 6-month intervals. The same seven tasks were used at each time point: exact calculation, story problems, approximate arithmetic, place value, calculation principles, forced retrieval, and written problems. Although group analysis showed mostly linear growth over the 18-month period, analysis of individual differences revealed a much more complex picture. Some children exhibited marked variation in performance across the seven tasks, including evidence of difficulty in some cases. Individual growth patterns also showed differences in developmental trajectories between children on each task and within children across tasks. The findings support the idea of the componential nature of arithmetical ability and underscore the need for further longitudinal research on typically achieving children and of careful consideration of individual differences.     

Competitiveness among Japanese, Chinese, and American undergraduate students

Although research indicates that competitiveness, defined as the desire to win in interpersonal situations, is an important individual difference that influences a range of social interactions, little research has focused on competitiveness in cultures outside the United States. This study investigated competitiveness in three cultures by comparing Chinese (n=61), Japanese (n=232), and American (n=161) undergraduate college students. Nationality and sex were compared on two scales of the revised Competitiveness Index. Analysis indicated that American students scored higher on Enjoyment of Competitiveness than Chinese and Japanese students, but no difference was found on Contentiousness. Men scored higher than women on Enjoyment of Competition but not on Contentiousness. The findings indicate that sex and cultural patterns influence some but not all aspects of competitiveness.     

An Empirical Assessment of the GAM Theory of Creativity

ABSTRACT: Therivel (1993, 1998, 1999a, 1999b), in a series of articles, presented the GAM theory of creativity, which postulates that creativity is a function of genetics, assistances, and misfortunes. Two studies were undertaken to determine whether empirical data support this theory. In the first study, a sample of 529 undergraduate students completed a questionnaire designed to assess their creativity and the presence of anecdotal evidence regarding the three components of Therivel's theory. Two subsamples were formed of high creative (n = 40) and low creative (n = 38) individuals, and their scores on the three components were compared. In a second study, college students who were low on creativity but either high (n = 52) or low (n = 47) on academic achievement were identified and compared to the high creative individuals of Study 1 on the three components. In general, the results present at best modest support for Therivel's theory and no difference in applicability of the theory to creativity versus achievement.     

Age-Related Changes in Temporal Allocation of Visual Attention: Evidence From the Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) Paradigm

The present study explored the temporal allocation of attention in groups of 8-year-old children, 10-year-old children, and adults performing a rapid serial visual presentation task. In a dual-condition task, participants had to detect a briefly presented target (T2) after identifying an initial target (T1) embedded in a random series of distractors. A single-condition control task required participants to detect T2 without first identifying T1. The attentional blink (AB) reflects impairments in T2 detection due to the previous identification of T1. Although the amplitude of the AB (difference in T2 detection performance between the single task and the dual task) was found to be similar across age groups, its temporal expression (as a function of the T1–T2 lag) differed across age groups. Our results revealed age-related changes a) in the duration of the first lag(s) sparing effect (longer in the younger age groups), b) in the peak position of the AB (temporal displacement toward later lags in the younger age groups), and c) in the width of the AB (T2 impairments occurring for T1–T2 intervals of 400 ms and 500 ms in 8-year-old children, 300 ms in 10-year-old children, and 200 ms and 300 ms in adults). We discuss these differences in terms of changes in the efficiency of perceptual selection and inhibitory processes (attentional gating mechanisms) during development.     

Age changes in the missing-letter effect revisited

When participants search for a target letter while reading, they make more omissions if the target letter is embedded in frequent function words than in less frequent content words. Reflecting developmental changes in component language and literacy skills, the size of this effect increases with age. With adults, the missing-letter effect is due to both word function and word frequency. With children, it is unclear whether the growing size of the missing-letter effect across development is due to a larger effect of word function, word frequency, or both because previous studies with children seeking to isolate the influence of word frequency and word function suffer from important methodological limitations. With these methodological limitations eliminated (Experiments 1 and 2), performance in a letter detection task was assessed for children in Grades 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7 as well as for undergraduate students. The results revealed that the influence of word function increases with age, whereas the effect of frequency is fairly stable across ages. Furthermore, normative predictability data collected in Experiment 3 revealed that third graders and undergraduate students were equally good at predicting function slots in a sentence.     

Gender Differences and Cognitive Correlates of Mathematical Skills in School-Aged Children

Published information concerning the influence of gender on mathematical ability tests has been controversial. The present study examines the performance of school-aged boys and girls from two age groups on several mathematical tasks and analyzes the predictive value of a verbal fluency test and a spatial test on those mathematical tasks. More specifically, our research attempts to answer the following two questions: (1) Are gender differences in mathematical test performance among children interrelated with age and (2) do verbal and spatial nonmathematical tests mediate gender effects on mathematical test performance? Two hundred and seventy-eight 7- to 10-year-old children and 248 13- to 16-year-olds were selected from schools in Colombia and Mexico (231 boys and 295 girls). The age effect was found to be significant for all measures, with scores improving with age. Results showed that boys and girls in both age groups scored similarly in most subtests, but that differences emerged in the performance of mental mathematical operations and in resolving arithmetical problems. In the latter – but not in mental math – older boys outperformed older girls, whereas no gender differences were observed in the younger groups. After controlling for age, it was found that the spatial test was, indeed, a significant mediator of gender effects, while the verbal task was not.     

Event-related responses to pronoun and proper name anaphors in parallel and nonparallel discourse structures.

The present study investigated event-related potential (ERP) effects of pronoun and proper name anaphors in both parallel and nonparallel discourse structures. Thirty-seven students processed 400 semantically different text passages. Each trial consisted of two sentences and a comprehension question. The first sentence introduced a protagonist who was referred to by an anaphoric word in the second sentence. The anaphoric word was either a pronoun or a repetition of the proper name of the protagonist and had either the same or a different syntactic role as its antecedent (subject or object). The sentences were presented word by word as rapid serial visual display. Event-related potentials were recorded from 61 scalp electrodes. In agreement with the parallel function strategy, nonparallel discourse structures required longer decision times and exhibited higher error rates than parallel structures. The ERPs revealed two effects: First, pronoun anaphors evoked a more pronounced negativity than proper name anaphors between 270 and 420 ms latency over the frontal cortex electrodes. Another relative negativity occurred between 510 and 600 ms over the parietal cortex electrodes. Second, anaphors in nonparallel positions were accompanied by a more pronounced negativity over the parietal cortex. These data support the idea that an anaphor in nonparallel position triggers extra processing steps, probably search processes in working memory which integrate currently encountered information with previously activated representations.     

Higher face recognition ability in girls: Magnified by own-sex and own-ethnicity bias

Earlier studies on adults have shown sex differences in face recognition. Women tend to recognise more faces of other women than men do, whereas there are no sex differences with regard to male faces. In order to test the generality of earlier findings and to examine potential reasons for the observed pattern of sex differences, two groups of Swedish 9-year-old children (n = 101 and n = 96) viewed faces of either Swedish or Bangladeshi children and adults for later recognition. Results showed that girls outperformed boys in recognition of female faces, irrespective of ethnicity and age of the faces. Boys and girls recognised Swedish male faces to an equal extent, whereas girls recognised more Bangladeshi male faces than boys did. These results indicate that three factors explain the magnitude of sex differences in face recognition: an overall female superior face recognition ability, the correspondence between the sex of viewer and the gender of the face, and prior knowledge of the ethnicity of the face.     

Completion of binary statements by children at three academic levels

This study was designed to examine the strategy employed by school-aged subjects when completing binary statements. Thirty-two incomplete binary statements representing four statement conditions (true affirmative, true negative, false affirmative, and false negative) were administered to 120 children randomly selected from three academic levels. A response-index change model is postulated as representing the strategy employed by these school-aged subjects when completing binary statements. According to this model, the factor that causes response time to differ across the four statement conditions is the number of times the child is required to change the set of his response index. The child begins the task of completing a binary statement by reading and encoding the incomplete statement. He then selects the numeral that corresponds to the adjective “odd” or “even” contained in the predicate of the incomplete statement. The child’s response index is now set to respond with this numeral. What the child does at this point will depend upon the type of statement condition with which he is working. If the child is completing a TA statement, no response-index change is required. He simply gives as his answer the numeral to which his response index is set. If the child is completing an FA statement or a TN statement, one response-index change is required. If the child is completing an FN statement, two response-index changes are required.