Computer generation of textures

A method for displaying fixed or time-varying textured patterns under computer control is described. The luminance profiles of these patterns is fixed in one dimension (Y axis), but can be arbitrarily complex in the other dimension (X axis) since they are synthesized by software. An example of the use of the method in texture matching experiments is given.     

Preparation for horizontal or vertical dimensions affects the right-left prevalence effect

When stimulus and response simultaneously vary in both horizontal and vertical dimensions, the stimulus-response compatibility effect is often larger for the horizontal dimension. We investigated the role of preparation for each dimension in this right-left prevalence. In Experiment 1, tasks based on horizontal and vertical dimensions were mixed in random order, and the relevant dimension in each trial was cued with a variable cue-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). A right-left prevalence effect was observed only when participants prepared for the upcoming task. Experiment 2 replicated the absence of the prevalence effect for the simultaneous presentation of cue and target using a fixed SOA of 0 msec. In Experiment 3, the right-left prevalence emerged with a 0-msec SOA when participants prepared for e achdimension basedon its frequency. These resultssuggest that participants' internal set can be greater for the horizontal dimension, leading to the right-left prevalence effect.     

The effects of fixed‐interval schedules on variability of pigeons' pecking location

Many studies that have investigated performance under reinforcement schedules have measured response rate or interresponse time, which reflect the temporal dimension of responding; however, relatively few studies have examined other dimensions. The present study investigated the effects of fixed‐interval schedules on the location of pigeons' pecking response. A circular response area 22.4 cm in diameter was used so that the pecking responses were effective over a wide range. Pigeons were exposed to a fixed‐interval schedule whose requirement was systematically varied between conditions. Response location moved closer to the location of the last reinforced response as time elapsed in each trial. Additionally, as the fixed‐interval duration requirement increased, response locations shifted to the border of the response area and the variability of response locations increased. These results suggest that fixed‐interval schedules systematically control response location.     

确定、不确定及风险状态下选择反转:“齐当别”选择方式的解释

应用广义“弱优势”（weak dominance）模型检验确定、不确定及风险状态下的选择反转现象。该模型将人们的二择一选择行为描述为一种搜寻一备择方案在主观上优越于另一备择方案的过程。即：在甲方案在某一维度上优越于乙方案,而乙方案在另一维度上优越于甲方案的情况下,为了利用“弱优势”（weak dominance）原则达成决策,人们必须在一维度上将两者间较小的差异人为地“齐同”掉,而在另一维度上将“辨别”两者间较大的差异作为最终选择的依据。因此,在每次选择时,如果不认为最大的差异都是来自同一维度,就会导致选择反转。此项研究设计了一“匹配”任务,并借此检验,在不同的决策状态下,判断两备择方案在各维度上的差异是否能预测人们的重复选择变异。总的测试-再测试结果支持“齐当别”选择方式的解释。其发现表明：重复选择之所以可能是一致的,并不是因为每次都认定被选中的备择方案具有最大值,而是因为每次选择都认定最大的差异来自一固定的维度。     

Schema induction in problem solving: a multidimensional analysis

The present research examined the processes of schema formation in problem solving. In 4 experiments, participants experienced a series of tasks analogous to A. S. Luchins' (1942) water jar problems before attempting to solve isomorphic target problems. Juxtaposing illustrative source instances varying in procedural features along multiple dimensions promoted the construction of a general schema that facilitated solving an isomorphic problem requiring a novel procedure. Exposure to less variant problems led to faster initial learning, but narrower and fixed schemas (mental set), whereas exposure to variant procedures led to slower initial learning, but broader and more flexible schemas. The findings support the dimensional specificity hypothesis: Generalization along 1 dimension facilitates transfer to a target problem differing from the source problems in that dimension.     

Modifiability of attention: Effects of dimensional salience and overtraining on discrimination shifts

Previous results have shown that there is an increased difference between intradimensional (ID) and extradimensional (ED) shifts when subjects shift to a nonpreferred dimension. Fisher and Zeaman (1973) have indicated that such findings can be explained not only by their attention-retention theory, which assumes that attention is completely modifiable, but also by models which assume that attention has a fixed, nonmodifiable component. The present experiment showed that the larger ID-ED difference with a nonsalient dimension is solely attributable to the improved performance of the ID shift condition, a results which is more consistent with the assumption of complete modifiability of attention.     

Representations of qualitative and quantitative dimensions

Geometric representations of psychological dimensions are analyzed and compared to an alternative set-theoretical approach. Judgments of similarity between forms and figures reveal the following effects: (a) qualitative attributes are curved relative to quantitative attributes, contrary to intradimensional subtractivity; (b) quantitative attributes augment differences in qualitative attributes, contrary to interdimensional additivity; (c) adding a new dimension with a fixed value increases similarity, contrary to translation invariance. The implications of these results to multidimensional representations of proximity data are discussed.     

Fixed set in the perception of size in relation to lightness

When control subjects compared the sizes of two circles of different lightness, the lightness-size illusion was observed, i.e., the darker circle was perceived to be smaller. However, after experimental subjects were shown a large, light circle and a smaller, darker circle repeatedly, the subjective size of the dark circle increased. It decreased after repeated exposures to a small, light circle and a large, dark one. These changes in perception were assumed to be contrast effects produced by an experimentally fixed set and were similar to changes observed when the same method was previously applied by this author to the size-weight illusion. Despite differences in modality and dimension of perception, every application of the fixed-set method resulted in analogous patterns. When the situation of the set-fixing experiment and that of the critical experiment were similar to each other, the fixed set was activated more and greater contrast effects were produced.     

Analysis of covariance structures

A general method is presented for estimating variance components when the experimental design has one random way of classification and a possibly unbalanced fixed classification. The procedure operates on a sample covariance matrix in which the fixed classes play the role of variables and the random classes correspond to observations. Cases are considered which assume (i) homogeneous and (ii) nonhomogeneous error variance, and (iii) arbitrary scale factors in the measurements and homogeneous error variance. The results include maximum-likelihood estimations of the variance components and scale factors, likelihood-ratio tests of the goodness-of-fit of the model assumed for the design, and large-sample variances and covariances of the estimates. Applications to mental test data are presented. In these applications the subjects constitute the random dimension of the design, and a classification of the mental tests according to objective features of format or content constitute the fixed dimensions.Preparation of this paper has been supported in part by NSF Grant GB-939 and U. S. P. H. Grant GM-1286-01. Computer time was donated by the Computation Center, University of Chicago.Now at the University of Chicago.Now at the University of Georgia.     

Dimensionality and the dynamics of human unstable equilibrium

Maintaining an unstable equilibrium requires that multiple joints be coordinated so that the center of mass is kept above the base of support. The authors' aim in the present study was to discover the underlying dynamics of local (foot, hip, or head) and global (center of mass) components involved in balance control and how those dynamics are affected by changes in the available information. Participants (N = 6) had to maintain their balance on an unstable platform. Using dimensional analyses (largest Lyapunov exponent and correlation dimension), the authors examined the active degrees of freedom involved in balance control. Results indicated a similarity in dimension between local (joints) and global (center of mass) components, between a fixed point and a limit cycle. The behavior of the center of mass was found to be more predictable than the behavior of its local constituents. In addition, the available visual information affected the predictability of the postural behavior, which suggests that vision is used in the stabilization of the low-dimensional dynamics underlying balance control.     

Form identification in peripheral vision

Outlined and solid-surfaced metric histoforms and polygons we;e employed in an identification task where choice forms were fixed at 0 deg and target forms at six points along the temporal horizontal meridian in the periphery (nasal retina). Accuracy in the identification of solid-surfaced polygons in the far periphery (80 deg from the fovea) was much higher than has been previously reported. Polygons were identified more quickly than histaforms, but a significant difference was not obtained between the speed of identification of outlined and solid shapes. Combined speed and error data indicated that shape (histoform or polygon) is the most salient dimension of a form less than 50 deg from the fovea. whereas beyond 50 deg from the fovea the surface (outlined or solid) of a form is its most salient dimension. Finally. comparisons of the functional relations provided by these performance data with anatomical and physiological data produced the following hypothesis: Spatial summation of rod receptors beyond 20 deg of angular eccentricity in the nasal retina is directly proportional to the density of rod receptors.     

Comparing fixed‐amount and progressive‐amount DRO Schedules for tic suppression in youth with chronic tic disorders

Chronic tic disorders (CTDs) involve motor and/or vocal tics that often cause substantial distress and impairment. Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) schedules of reinforcement produce robust, but incomplete, reductions in tic frequency in youth with CTDs; however, a more robust reduction may be needed to affect durable clinical change. Standard, fixed‐amount DRO schedules have not commonly yielded such reductions, so we evaluated a novel, progressive‐amount DRO schedule, based on its ability to facilitate sustained abstinence from functionally similar behaviors. Five youth with CTDs were exposed to periods of baseline, fixed‐amount DRO (DRO‐F), and progressive‐amount DRO (DRO‐P). Both DRO schedules produced decreases in tic rate and increases in intertic interval duration, but no systematic differences were seen between the two schedules on any dimension of tic occurrence. The DRO‐F schedule was generally preferred to the DRO‐P schedule. Possible procedural improvements and other future directions are discussed.     

特征呈现方式对类别知觉表征的影响*

两个实验采用阻碍效应范式探讨了特征的呈现方式对类别知觉表征的影响。研究结果发现在阻碍效应范式中,改变特征的呈现方式引发了不同的类别知觉表征方式;当固定样例特征的呈现位置时,引发了基于样例整体相似性的表征;而随机样例特征的呈现位置时,引发了基于样例特征的解析表征。该结果支持了类别学习的多系统理论。     

Repetition effects in choice reaction time to multidimensional stimuli

Ss classified as quickly as possible stimuli back-projected one at a time on a small screen by pressing one of two levers in response to each stimulus, according to the levels of a single specified binary stimulus dimension. Stimuli were rectangles varying in height alone, in width alone, or in both dimensions, in either a correlated or an orthogonal fashion. Stimuli followed responses by a fixed interval of 82, 580, or 1,080 msec. Response time was longer when both dimensions varied orthogonally than when only one dimension varied, indicating that Ss were unable to avoid perceiving the rectangle figures as wholes. Repeated stimuli were responded to more quickly than stimuli which were different from the immediately preceding stimulus in all conditions. With orthogonally combined dimensions, response time to stimulus repetitions was lowest, increased when the stimulus changed while the response was repeated, and increased still further when both the stimulus and the response changed. Increasing the time interval between stimuli decreased response time for nonrepetitions, while response time for repetitions was relatively unaffected. The results were discussed in terms of two models of serial choice reaction time.     

Contrast, induction, facilitation, suppression, and conservation

Ten rats received all of their water in daily 1-hr sessions. Following a baseline phase in which lever and water spout were freely available throughout each session, subjects were trained to press the lever for water on mixed schedules composed of two alternating components. Each component gave access to water for a fixed cumulation of drinking time every time the rat cumulated a fixed amount of lever-pressing time. Changes in one component produced contrast and induction effects, both positive and negative, with respect to both lever pressing and drinking in the unchanged component. All schedules facilitated lever pressing relative to baseline. All schedules suppressed drinking relative to baseline, even though contingency sessions allowed ample time to perform the baseline amount of drinking. The entire pattern of results was predicted in quantitative detail by assuming that the total amount of a dimension apportioned to lever pressing and drinking is conserved between baseline and contingency sessions. Conservation theory was shown to predict several effects produced by simple fixed-ratio schedules, and was compared favorably with probability-differential (Premack, 1971) and response-deprivation (Timberlake and Allison, 1974) theory.     

内隐人格理论的实体论－渐变论维度研究述评

对内隐人格理论的实体论－渐变论维度的研究是近年来社会认知研究的一个新趋势。研究发现,人们对人的特性（如智力、品德和人格特征等）的内隐认知理论,制约调节着他们对人的行为的理解和反应。人们持有的不同内隐人格理论导致他们不同的社会认知模式和行为反应方式。实体论者由于认为人的特性是固定不变的,而倾向于用抽象概括化的和静态的内在特质来理解人的行为;而渐变论者由于认为人的特性是动态可塑的,而倾向于用影响心理动态过程的内外具体调节因素来理解人的行为。作者在综述有关研究的基础上,进而提出一些新的见解。     

The Simon effect for vertical S–R relations: changing the mechanism by randomly varying the S–R mapping rule?

Recent findings indicate that the shape of the effect function of the Simon effect--derived by analysing the response time distribution for corresponding and non-corresponding trials--differs depending on the task. Specifically, decreasing effect functions have been reported for horizontal and stable rather increasing effect functions have been obtained for vertical stimulus-response (S-R) relations. Furthermore, it has been assumed that these differences reflect distinct mechanisms underlying the Simon effect. However, in two studies decreasing effect functions were reported for the vertical dimension. In order to investigate these contradictory findings four experiments were conducted. Since both studies--in which a decreasing effect function was obtained--used a modified version of the Simon task, that is, randomly varying S-R mapping rules, the Simon effect for fixed and random S-R mapping rules was investigated using vertical (Experiments 1, 2, and 4) and horizontal (Experiment 3) S-R relations. The results indicate that randomly varying S-R mapping rules affect the shape of the effect function for vertical but not for horizontal S-R relations. It was concluded that these findings indicate that the alternation of S-R mapping rules changes the information processing for the vertical dimension in a way, that the same mechanism as for horizontal S-R relations occurs.     

艾勒悖论(Allais Paradox)另释

艾勒悖论违背了期望效用(Expected Utility)理论的独立性(independence)原则,成为欲推翻期望效用理论的杠杆。“齐当别”抉择模型不将风险决策行为看成是追求某种“最大期望值”的抉择反应,而将其看成是“最好可能结果之间的取舍”或者“最坏可能结果之间的取舍”。此项研究设计了一“判断”技术,并用此对艾勒设计的选择问题加以检验。实验表明,判断结果所示的“齐当别”策略能满意地对艾勒选择题作出解释。     

Area-matching strategies used by young children

Across three studies, conditions were varied under which children aged 4–5 years matched the area of a rectangle with a given width (or height) to that of a square. In the first study, subjects observed the rectangle being changed in height from trial to trial and had access to their immediately preceding response. Under these conditions, rectangle width (the dimension under subject control) was a linear decreasing function of rectangle height. This function was interpreted as evidence for a hypothetical addition/subtraction strategy for maintaining equality in area between the comparison rectangle and the standard square. As a test of this hypothesis, in a second experiment the subjects were denied access to their immediately previous response, and in a third study they were also unable to observe the rectangle as it was altered by the experimenter between trials. The purpose of these changes was to remove the information necessary for readily implementing an addition/subtraction strategy. In both studies, area matches seemed to be based on a side-matching strategy, such that subjects matched one dimension of the rectangle to one side of the standard square. It was suggested that young children use different cues or strategies with different variants of the matching task because they do not possess a fixed, specific concept of area.     

孔子之思的美学意义

孔子的思想方法具体体现在两个方面:一是从非现成性的识度,从生成与构成的角度理解事物的发生与存在;二是在“子绝四:毋意,毋必,毋固,毋我”中所体现与蕴含的对主体与世界之本然状况的理解。这种思想方法决定了我们不能把他关于艺术和美的言论当作固定的理论教条来理解,而只能将其理解为一定机缘下的缘起状态:理解为在具体对话状态中的有针对性的看法;理解为立足于“仁”这个更加本源、更加深沉的源域对艺术的具体存在状况的损益。孔子的这一思想方法是民族艺术精神的根基所在。