Effect of instructions on EMG during the bench press in trained and untrained males

Strength and rehabilitation professionals strive to emphasize certain muscles used during an exercise and it may be possible to alter muscle recruitment strategies with varying instructions. This study aimed to determine whether resistance trained and untrained males could selectively activate the pectoralis major or triceps brachii during the bench press according to various instructions. This study included 13 trained males (21.5 ± 2.9 years old, 178.7 ± 7.0 cm, 85.7 ± 10.7 kg) and 12 untrained males (20.3 ± 1.6 years old, 178.8 ± 9.4 cm, 74.6 ± 17.3 kg). Participants performed a bench press one-repetition maximum (1-RM) test, 3 uninstructed repetitions at 80% 1-RM and two more sets of three repetitions with instructions to isolate the chest or arm muscles. Electromyography (EMG) was obtained from the pectoralis major, anterior deltoid, and the long head and short head of the triceps brachii. Maximum EMG activity normalized to 1-RM for each muscle was averaged over the three repetitions for each set and compared between the uninstructed, chest-instructed and arm-instructed conditions among the groups. The trained participants had a greater 1-RM (126.2 ± 30.6 kg) than the untrained participants (61.6 ± 14.8 kg) (P < 0.01). EMG activity was not different between the groups for any of the instructions (P > 0.05). When the group data was combined, short head of the triceps activity was significantly lower in the chest instruction (80.1 ± 19.3%) when compared to the uninstructed (85.6 ± 23.3%; P = 0.01) and arm-instructed (86.0 ± 23.2; P = 0.01) conditions. It can be concluded that instructions can affect muscle activation during the bench press, and this is not dependent on training status.     

Effects of music on mood during bench stepping exercise

This study evaluated the effect of music on the mood of women during exercise. 16 middle-aged women, aged 49.9 +/- 7.53 yr., performed 60-min. bench stepping exercise while listening to Japanese traditional folk song, aerobic dance music, or nonmusic. The subjects reported significantly less fatigue with aerobic dance music and Japanese traditional folk song than with nonmusic. Aerobic dance music was associated with significantly more vigor and less confusion than nonmusic.     

Emergentism by default: A view from the bench

For the last 50 years the dominant stance in experimental biology has been reductionism in general, and genetic reductionism in particular. Philosophers were the first to realize that the belief that the Mendelian genes were reduced to DNA molecules was questionable. Soon, experimental data confirmed these misgivings. The optimism of molecular biologists, fueled by early success in tackling relatively simple problems has now been tempered by the difficulties encountered when applying the same simple ideas to complex problems. We analyze three examples taken from experimental data that illustrate the shortcomings of this sort of reductionism. In the first, alterations in the expression of a large number of genes coexist with normal phenotypes at supra-cellular levels of organization; in the second, the supposed intrinsic specificity of hormonal signals is negated; in the third, the notion that cancer is a cellular problem caused by mutated genes is challenged by data gathered both from the reductionist viewpoint and the alternative view proposing that carcinogenesis is development gone awry. As an alternative to reductionism, we propose that the organicist view is a good starting point from which to explore these phenomena. However, new theoretical concepts are needed to grapple with the apparent circular causality of complex biological phenomena.     

Age and sex differences on the hand test

Investigated age and sex differences on the Hand Test across the life span, while statistically partialing-out the effects of educational level and verbal ability. Subjects were 150 individuals (75 males, 75 females) ranging in age from 20 to 86 years, assigned to one of three age groups on the basis of their chronological age. Participants were administered the Hand Test and the WAIS vocabulary subtest; in addition, years of formal education completed for each subject was obtained. Results indicated that even after statistically adjusting for the effects of education and verbal ability, a number of significant Age. Sex, Age and Sex, as well as Age x Sex interactions were obtained on the Hand Test. It was suggested that, as previous criticisms of projective research with the aged are met, a residue of important personality trends persists.     

Computer-adaptive testing: the impact of test characteristics on perceived performance and test takers' reactions

This study examined how specific features of adaptive tests are related to test takers' reactions. Participants took a computer-adaptive test in which 2 features, difficulty of the initial item and difficulty of subsequent items, were manipulated, then responded to questionnaires assessing their reactions to the test. The data show that the relationship between a test's objective difficulty, which was determined by the 2 manipulated test characteristics, and reactions was fully mediated by perceived performance. Additional analyses evaluated the impact of feedback on reactions to the adaptive test. In general, feedback that was consistent with perceptions of performance was positively related to reactions. The results suggest that minor changes to the design of an adaptive test may potentially enhance examinees' reactions.     

Modeling the impact of test anxiety and test familiarity on the criterion-related validity of cognitive ability tests

The assessment of cognitive abilities, whether it is for purposes of basic research or applied decision making, is potentially susceptible to both facilitating and debilitating influences. However, relatively little research has examined the degree to which these factors might moderate the criterion-related validity of cognitive ability tests. To address this gap, we use Classical Test Theory formulas to articulate how test anxiety and test familiarity can influence observed scores, observed score variance, and most importantly, the criterion-related validity of observed scores. The resulting equations reveal that understanding the influence of test anxiety and test familiarity on criterion-related validity coefficients requires the consideration of a number of additional parameters. To elucidate the implications of the model, we present a Monte Carlo simulation. Results show that anxiety and familiarity can have a significant negative effect on the observed criterion-related validity, but also show that this effect is highly variable. In particular, the effect depends heavily upon the relation between these factors and the criterion variable. Additionally, we note that the equations we develop highlight important gaps in the literature; there are few clear empirical estimates of several of the parameters in our formulas. We call for future research to better examine these additional relations.     

Note on the relation between Kendall's tau and the Cronholm-Revusky test

It is shown that the rank testR proposed by Cronholm and Revusky for comparing the effect of two treatments on a single group ofn subjects is a linear function of Kendall'sτ-coefficient. The asymptotic results of Bennett for the distribution ofR are also applicable to that ofτ under a class of nonnull hypotheses.     

Identifying Cheating on Unproctored Internet Tests: The Z‐test and the likelihood ratio test

Unproctored Internet testing (UIT) is becoming more popular in employment settings due to its cost effectiveness and efficiency. However, one of the major concerns with UIT is the possibility of cheating behaviors: a more capable conspirator can sit beside the real applicant and answer test items, or the applicant may use unauthorized materials. The present study examined the effectiveness of using a proctored verification test following the UIT to identify cheating in UIT, where 2 test statistics, a Z‐test and a likelihood ratio (LR) test, compare the consistency of test performance across the testing conditions. A simulation study was conducted to test the effectiveness of the two test statistics for a computerized adaptive test format. Results indicate that both test statistics have high power to detect dishonest job applicants at low Type I error rates. Compared with the LR test, the Z‐test was more efficient and effective and is therefore recommended for practical applications. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Sex differences on the serial color-word test

The Serial Color-Word Test was administered to nonclinical volunteers of three age strata (17-29, 30-45, 46-65 yr.). Sex differences on the 17 variables of the test were explored for each age stratum. Only six significant intersex differences were found. In all age strata women scored significantly higher on linear regression of reading times in one of the last two subtests, i.e., R4 or R5.     

Influences of handedness and gender on the grooved pegboard test

We studied performance on the Grooved Pegboard Test upon repeated trials and transfer of training between the hands in the first trial. The classification of handedness was based on the writing hand. We employed three trials for each hand and two different protocols for the order in which the hands started the test. For the three trials combined, women were faster than men. From the first to the second trial, there was an improvement in performance for both sexes. Within the first trial, sex differences reached significance and the protocol interacted with handedness. In this trial, only left-handed men were found to benefit from previous opposite-hand performance. It is speculated that a larger corpus callosum in left-handed men allows for the greater transfer of training between the hands.     

Psychosomatic diseases and the Rorschach test

Despite numerous efforts to identify a Rorschach profile uniquely associated with and helpful in diagnosing psychosomatic conditions, none has been demonstrated to exist. Although certain Rorschach characteristics have been consistently observed in studies of patients with psychosomatic diseases and can shed light on personality features of these individuals, similar characteristics are encountered in a variety of other conditions as well. This state of affairs is attributable not to short-comings in the Rorschach test, but rather to inadequate conceptualization and categorization of psychosomatic disease.