Interaction of sex and sex role in response to violations of preferred seating arrangements

Previous studies have indicated that men respond negatively to face-to-face invasion by strangers; females respond negatively to side-by-side invasion by strangers. In the first of two studies, men and women with an androgynous or traditional sex role were subjected to a face-to-face invasion by a same-sexed stranger. Men with a traditional sex role and women with an androgynous sex role felt more crowded (p<.05) than androgynous men and traditional women. Perceptions of crowding in these two groups were also accompanied by performance decrements as a result of the face-to-face invasion. In the second study, androgynous and traditional men and women were subjected to a side-by-side invasion. Women with a traditional sex role felt more crowded than all other groups (p<.05). There were no differences in perceptions of crowding among the other groups of subjects. Performance decrements were found only in women with a traditional orientation.     

Associations between psychological characteristics and indicators of metabolic syndrome among Chinese adults

Current knowledge about the relationship between psychological characteristics and metabolic syndrome (MetS) components is limited in Asian populations. The purpose of this study is to investigate linkages between physiological markers of MetS and life satisfaction, hostility, and depression in Chinese adults. Secondary analyses were conducted using cross-sectional data from parents of randomly selected middle school students participating in a pilot study in Qingdao, China. Among 440 parents who consented to participate (237 women, 203 men), 368 provided valid responses in all three categories of psychological characteristics, and only those subjects were included in these analyses. General linear models and logistic regressions were run separately by gender, controlling for covariates. Among women, life satisfaction was inversely associated with triglyceride levels (p = .04), LDL-C (p < .01), risk of hypertriglyceridemia (OR[.53], p < .01), HDL-C (OR[.78], p = .03), and MetS (OR[.52], p = .03). No associations were found between life satisfaction and any psychological characteristics among men. Among women, hostility was positively associated with triglyceride level (p = .04) and risk of hypertriglyceridemia (OR[2.12], p < .05). Among men, hostility was positively associated with waist circumference (p = .04), waist-hip ratio (p < .05), and fasting plasma insulin (p < .01). Depression was not associated with any physiological measurement in either gender. These findings indicate that relationships exist between certain psychological characteristics and physiological indicators of MetS among Chinese adults, although there may be important differences between genders.     

Sex Selection Technology: A Prediction of Its Use and Effect

We surveyed 281 undergraduates to assess their sexual preference for a firstborn child and their willingness to use sex selection technology. Results indicated overall preference for a boy among these respondents whether or not they indicated a willingness to use reproductive technology. Black women reported a greater willingness to use technology than did White women (p < .05), and older respondents (p < .10) also reported a greater intention to use the technology. Catholics were less willing to use technology than all other religious sects (p < .05). Of the 51 respondents who indicated their willingness to use technology, 73% preferred sons (p < .01). This finding held across sex, race, religion, age, and income levels. Support for the women's movement was unrelated to either preference or projected use of sex selection technology.     

Normative values on the marks and mathews fear questionnaire: A comparison as a function of age and sex

While the Marks and Mathews Fear Questionnaire (1979) has gained widespread use, little information on its psychometric characteristics has been reported. Thus, one purpose of this investigation was to provide normative information on this device. A second purpose was to examine differences in reported fears as a function of age and sex. Fear Questionnaires were administered to a large sample of high-school students, college students, and adults. Means and standard deviations on the Fear Questionnaire are reported for the various groups. Significant differences were found between groups, with college and high-school women reporting more fears than corresponding men, college and high-school women reporting more fears than adult women, and college men showing a trend toward more fears than other men.Portions of this paper were presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, November 1985, Houston, Texas.     

Gender Differences in Body Size Dissatisfaction Among Individuals With Low,Medium, or High Levels of Body Focus

The authors designed the present study to test whether women reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction than did men even when the 2 genders were matched on a measure of degree of body focus. Sixty undergraduates (30 men, 30 women) were screened on attention-to-body-shape scores and divided into high, medium, and low body-shape-focus groups. The participants also completed questionnaires that provided information on age, education, vocabulary ability, levels of depression, and body-image assessment. The groups did not differ (ps > .05) on age, education, vocabulary ability, or levels of depression. However, women in all 3 body-shape-focus categories indicated a larger discrepancy between their real vs. ideal body images (p < .01) than did the men. In the high-body-focus group, there was an 11:1 ratio between women's and men's reported real-ideal body-shape discrepancies. Women showed greater body dissatisfaction than did men, even when the genders were matched on a measure of body focus.     

Sex and achievement domain: Cognitive patterns of success and failure

Subjects (N=439) were asked to write an account of an achievement of failure, and to describe it in terms of locus of standards (internal-external), conceptual focus (process-impact), and initial expectations for success (or failure). Additionally, accounts were classified on the basis of achievement domain (personal, interpersonal, mastery). Analyses of variance [2 (sex)×3 (domain)] for each cognitive measure revealed few sex differences. However, cognitive responses did vary as a function of achievement domain. Main effects for domain were observed under success instructions for locus of control (p<.0002) and under failure instructions for locus of control (p<.05), conceptual focus (p<.05), and expectations (p<.06). Interaction effects of sex and achievement domain were observed on locus of standards for success (p<.0002) and initial expectations preceding failure (p<.025), indicating that women were more responsive to domain differences than were men. Discriminant analyses indicated that cognitions were more readily patterned in terms of achievement domain than sex. Elaboration and incorporation of the concept of domain in cognitive models of achievement is suggested.     

Sex Differences,Weapon Focus,and Eyewitness Reliability

Abstract

Two aspects of eyewitness identification were tested: sex differences in eyewitness reliability and an explanation of the weapon focus effect that is based on object salience. One hundred ninety-one male and female American college students watched a slide sequence that depicted a male or female target person enacting a simple behavioral progression while holding various objects. Afterward, the subjects attempted to identify the target person in a photospread and to recall physical details about him or her on a questionnaire. The results confirmed a predicted own-sex identification bias effect (p < .001) but did not support the object salience hypothesis. An interaction between subject sex and object indicated that men and women attended to and were distracted by different types of objects (p < .009).     

Does substance abuse contribute to further risk of falls in dementia

This study aimed to predict the risk of falls by focusing on substance abuse in the elderly with dementia. Our national cross-sectional survey included 1210 elderly Malaysian demented subjects. The study identified the effects of age, ethnicity, sex differences, marital status, educational level, and substance abuse on the likelihood of falls in the elderly with dementia. The multivariate logistic regression model was used to analyze data collected from samples. The prevalence of falls was about 17% among subjects and significantly increased with age (p = .006). Furthermore, the results showed that age (OR = 1.03), ethnicity (OR = 1.69), substance abuse (OR = 1.68), and female sex (OR = 1.45) significantly enhanced the risk of falls in respondents (p < .05). Educational level and marital status had no significant effects on the likelihood of falls (p > .05). However, the findings provided evidence of an additional effect of substance abuse on further risk of falls in older adults with dementia.     

Study of Sexual Concordance in Men and Women with Different Typologies of Adherence to the Sexual Double Standard

Background/ObjectiveSexual concordance (i.e., relationship between genital response and subjective sexual arousal) is higher in men than in women. Among the factors that could explain this difference would be the sexual double standard (SDS). Sexual concordance is examined by SDS typologies of adherence (egalitarian, man-favorable, and woman-favorable).MethodDuring exposure to a film with sexual content, genital response (penile circumference/vaginal pulse amplitude) and self-reported sexual arousal were recorded in 104 young adults (42 men and 62 women), distributed into SDS typologies of adherence on the basis of their scores on the Sexual Double Standard Scale.ResultsSexual concordance was obtained in men and women with egalitarian and man-favorable typology. Subjective sexual arousal explained a significant percentage of the variance in genital response in the egalitarian typology (men: R² = .32, p < .01; women: R² = .19, p < .05) and man-favorable typology (men: R² = .21, p < .05; women: R² = .23, p < .05).ConclusionsAgreement between genital responsiveness and subjective sexual arousal depends on DES adherence typology.     

Index to Volume 122

I examined the impact of first names on ratings of physical attractiveness as judged by British undergraduate subjects using male and female full-face pictures presented on photographic slides. The photographs were identified with attractive names, unattractive names, or without any name indicated. Subjects rated the stimulus figures for physical attractiveness. Names accounted for approximately 6% of the variance in subjects' ratings of physical attractiveness. This effect was highly significant for pictures of women (p < .001), but nonsignificant for pictures of men (p > .05).     

Patterns of Culturally Defined Sex-Role Preference and Parental Imitation

Summary

The theory that males tend to identify with a culturally defined, masculine role and that females tend to imitate their mothers was assessed by administering the It Scale (culturally defined role preference) and the Imitation Schedule (parental imitation) to 36 white, middle-class, third-grade boys and girls. Boys' masculine role preference was higher than the girls' feminine preference (t = 4.62, p < .0005), and there was no difference in same-sexed imitation scores (t = .24, p > .05). Boys' masculine preference was higher than their father imitation (t = 1.85, p < .05), and the girls had higher mother imitation than feminine preference (t = 1.85, p < .05). The interpretations were complicated by the fact that the girls' preference was in the masculine range. The results suggested that boys identify with a culturally defined, masculine role, that girls show a similar tendency, and that neither sex imitates the same-sexed parent consistently.     

Differential effects of stimulus characteristics during knee joint perturbation on hamstring and quadriceps reflex responses

When stretching muscles of the ankle joint, stretch velocity and amplitude were shown to selectively influence specific parts of the stretch reflex. The present study investigated whether similar effects can be observed at the knee joint. Seventeen subjects were exposed to sudden anterior tibial translations. The influence of stimulus amplitude was analyzed by applying a low (LIMP) or high impulse (HIMP). To investigate the influence of velocity, rate of force development of the perturbation was chosen either low (LRFD) or high (HRFD). Activation of biceps femoris (BF), semitendinosus (ST), vastus medialis (VM) and vastus lateralis (VL) was calculated in four consecutive timeframes (P0, P1, P2, P3). During P1, RFD (ST: p < .05; BF: p < .01; VM: p < .05; VL: p > .05) and during P2, impulse (ST: p < .05; BF: p < .01; VM: p < .01; VL: p < .01) did significantly influence reflex activation. The present study showed that stimulus characteristics influenced specific reflex components of knee joint muscles. As only hamstring muscles were stretched, whereas quadriceps was unloaded, it is concluded that different mechanisms like homonymous and heteronymous muscle afferents as well as joint and skin afferents might contribute to the reflex responses.     

Affective state and preference for immediate versus delayed reward

Fifty-two 9-year-olds were randomly assigned to success and failure treatment conditions involving acceptance or rejection of a drawing made for an art show. In a pilot study, this treatment was shown to influence significantly subjects' affective states. Just after treatment, subjects were presented with choices between pairs of small immediate and large delayed rewards. As predicted, subjects who had experienced success chose more often the large delayed reward than those who failed (p < .02). Prior expectancy for success and sex were not significantly related to choice behavior. The influence of affective state on various parameters of the choice paradigm was discussed, and other evidence was cited indicating that affective state is a major determinant of self-gratification behavior.     

Psychophysiological correlates of organizational change and threat of unemployment among police inspectors

The study examined psychosocial work-conditions and physiological reactions among thirty-six police inspectors (median age 45 years, 81% males) who participated in a reorganization. At this time, subjects were threatened by unemployment and had to reapply for their positions in a new police district. Data were collected during the reorganization and at three years follow-up, by means of questionnaires (Stress Profile) and blood samples. The blood samples were used to determine serum levels of gammaglutamyltransferase (GGT), glucose, lipids, prolactin, testosterone and cortisol. The results show a positive association betweenworry about employment and symptoms ofburnout during the reorganization. Mean scores for the Stress Profile sub-scalesworry about employment (p<.01) andwork-load (p<.05) decreased between measurements but an impairment inrelationships with management was noticed (p<.05). No significant changes were observed in terms of self-rated health complaints. Significant decreases in total cholesterol (p<.0001), LDL-cholesterol (p<.0001), LDL/HDL-ratio (p<.01), prolactin (p<.0001), as well as increases in testosterone (p<.01) and cortisol (p<.001) were observed for the whole sample. Glucose decreased with marginal significance (<.07). Controlling for age and gender, multivariate regression analyses showed that subjects who reported deteriorations insatisfaction with work manifested the most modest decreases in prolactin (p<.05). Also, the decrease in glucose was larger for subjects who experienced impairments in,satisfaction with work (p<.05), information (p<.05), task-oriented leadership, (p<.05), andrespect and dignity (p<.05). Subjects who perceived deteriorations in theethical and moral standards of the organization increased their cortisol level to a lower degree than their counterparts (p<.05). Favorable changes in employment status and psychosocial work environment seem to be related to improved physiological functioning.     

The influence of gender role typing on the expression of depressive symptoms

This study investigated the influence of gender role typing on the expression of depressive symptoms. Previous research (Padesky & Hammen, 1981) has found that men and women differ in their expression of depressive symptoms and has proposed gender role expectations as a possible explanation. This study considered gender role typing as a possible moderating factor of depressive symptoms. Undergraduates (99 men, 360 women) were divided into masculine and feminine groups according to the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Depressive symptoms were measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Gender role typing differences emerged on the BDI with feminine subjects reporting more emotional symptoms than masculine subjects (p<.05) and masculine subjects reporting more withdrawal and somatic symptoms than feminine subjects (p<.05). The results are consistent with the hypothesis that depressive symptoms are influenced by societal expectations. Future research should consider the influence of gender role typing on the expression of depressive symptoms.     

The Effects of Noise and Speech on Cognitive Task Performance

In the present study, which is based on Loeb's 1986 analysis, we used five levels of noise that varied in intermittency and meaningfulness, crossed with sex of subject and time of day. Memory tasks that differed in their reliance upon long-term, short-term free recall, and sequential short-term memory were used as dependent variables. A total of 160 subjects, 20 per block, participated in the 2 × 2 × 5 (Sexes X Time of Day X Noise Conditions) experimental design. Results support the prediction that white noise enhances performance on tasks with sequential short-term memory demands (anagrams: p < .05; random letter generation: p < .002). We found complex interactions by sex of subject, time of day, and type of noise for those tasks that placed a heavy demand on short-term working memory, i.e., complex sorting (Noise X Sex, p < .05) and random letter generation (Sex X Noise X Time of Day, p < .05). The predicted effects for anagrams were not supported. These results call into question previous generalizations about the effects of noise on performance (Broadbent, 1978; Dornic, Sarnelid, Larson, Svensson, & Fernaeus, 1982; Poulton, 1977), alternative interpretations are presented.     

The double standard of aging and the social situation: Judgments of attractiveness of the middle-aged woman

Two hundred male and 200 female undergraduates judged pictures of middle-aged women and middle-aged men for their immediate emotional appeal. Pictures had been selected to be of middle attractiveness and to represent individuals who appeared to be between 35 and 55 years old. Subjects made judgments under one of the following social conditions: in private, or in small groups which were all male, all female, or half male and half female. Social condition and subjects' sex affected judgments significantly, and there were some significant complex interactions between these two variables and the sex of the stimulus picture. Male and female subjects privately judged middle-aged women to be more attractive than middle-aged men, but the effect was reversed when judgments were made publicly in groups. As predicted, members of all-male groups judged middle-aged women to be considerably less attractive than middle-aged men. Members of all-female groups, and both the men and the women in mixed-sex groups, judged middle-aged women to be only slightly less attractive than middle-aged men.The authors wish to thank Linda Andrews, Dayna Buskirk, Anne Grealy and Lori Monda for their assistance.     

Sex differences in means and variability on the progressive matrices in university students: A meta‐analysis

A meta‐analysis is presented of 22 studies of sex differences in university students of means and variances on the Progressive Matrices. The results disconfirm the frequent assertion that there is no sex difference in the mean but that males have greater variability. To the contrary, the results showed that males obtained a higher mean than females by between .22d and .33d, the equivalent of 3.3 and 5.0 IQ conventional points, respectively. In the 8 studies of the SPM for which standard deviations were available, females showed significantly greater variability (F_(882,656)=1.20, p<.02), whilst in the 10 studies of the APM there was no significant difference in variability (F_(3344,5660)=1.00, p>.05).     

Cognitive mediators of reactions to rape

Subjects were exposed to slides that primed different concepts associated with aggression, close personal interactions between men and women, and women as sex objects. Then, as part of an ostensibly unrelated study, they read the testimonies of several rape victims and made judgments concerning both the victim and the alleged rapist. Exposure to negative consequences of aggression apparently threatened subjects' beliefs in a just world, leading subjects to interpret rape incidents in ways that reaffirm this belief (i.e., it strengthened subjects' beliefs that the defendant should be punished, but it also caused them to attribute more responsibility for the incident to the victim). Portrayals of close personal relationships between men and women increased male subjects' beliefs that rape victims were responsible for the incident, but had the opposite effect on female subjects' beliefs. Portrayals of women as sex objects decreased male subjects' beliefs in the victim's credibility and increased their beliefs that she was responsible for the incident; however, it had the opposite effects on female subjects' judgments. Despite their effects on judgments of the rape victim, priming manipulations did not affect beliefs that the defendant should be convicted. Implications of these results for the effects of the public media on attitudes and beliefs about rape are discussed.     

Social,Religious and Spiritual Capital and Physical/Emotional Functioning in a National Sample of African Americans

Spiritual and religious capital are forms of the broader construct of social capital. The present study, using probability‐based sampling methods, surveyed a national sample of African American adults to examine the relative contributions of spiritual and religious capital to their physical and emotional functioning. Analyses were conducted to determine if these constructs made a unique contribution above and beyond general social capital. African American men and women (N = 803) were interviewed by telephone. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that, across the full sample, although social capital was a positive predictor of physical and emotional functioning (p < .05 and p < .001), neither religious nor spiritual capital made an additional contribution to these outcomes. However, the relationships among these variables differed for men and women. Among men, social capital predicted positive emotional functioning (p < .001) but not physical functioning; spiritual and religious capital made no additional contribution to either outcome variable. Among women, social capital predicted positive emotional functioning (p < .01) but not physical functioning. However, religious capital did make a significant additional contribution to the prediction of emotional functioning (ΔR², p < .01). Dividing the sample into different age groups did not produce any different findings from those found with the sample as a whole. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for church‐ and faith‐based health promotion interventions aimed at health disparities reduction. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.